COMBAT AVIATION: MOST ESSENTIAL, LEAST UNDERSTOOD

 

 

My Article published in the Indus International Research Foundation Year Book 2024.

 

 

“Air power is not only a fascinating subject, but its theory and practice also constitute a very demanding profession, and even a lifetime’s study and devotion is inadequate to unravel its mystique or fully understand its imperatives.”

– Air Cmde Jasjit Singh

 

Air power is a revolutionary force that transformed the fundamental nature of war in less than a century. The concept of air power is often considered one of the most essential elements in modern military operations, but it can also be the least understood aspect for various reasons. Aviation technology advances open up many new possibilities for air power applications. Developing, maintaining, and operating a modern air force is resource-intensive. Balancing budget constraints with the need for cutting-edge technology and capabilities is a complex task. The effective integration of air power with surface forces can be challenging. Joint operations require seamless communication, coordination, and a shared understanding of each other’s roles, tasks, and core competencies. These complexities make it challenging to understand the potential of air power and the nuances of its application for both the practitioners of air power and those affected directly or indirectly by it.  Douhet, Mitchell, and Trenchard, the three airpower prophets from military aviation’s earliest years, articulated their airpower theories that shaped military aviation for decades. While it is good always to remember the basics, it is worthwhile to revisit and review them, especially with the ongoing and urgent debate about proposed organisational changes.

 

 

Historical Evolution. The historical evolution of air power is a strategic journey that spans over a century. The Wright brothers’ first powered flight in 1903 marked the beginning of aviation history. Air power took warfare into the third dimension, significantly altering its nature. It started with visual recce, dropping grenades on the enemy from the air and shooting at each other with pistols. During World War I (1914-1918), aircraft evolved from reconnaissance roles to conducting air-to-air combat and strategic bombing. Advances in aviation technology led to the introduction of monoplanes, metal construction, and improved engines. World War II (1939-1945) witnessed the widespread use of air power on all fronts. Strategic bombing campaigns, such as the Allied bombing of Germany and the Pacific island-hopping campaign, showcased the power of air forces. The Battle of Britain highlighted the critical role of air superiority in modern warfare. Jet engines were introduced during this period, leading to jet-powered aircraft development. Post-World War II and the Cold War (1945-1991) era saw the rapid growth of air forces as nuclear-armed strategic bombers became a central component of deterrence. The Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War (1955-1975) emphasised the importance of close air support, air mobility, and air-to-air combat. The post-Cold War Era (1991 onwards) led to a reassessment of military priorities, focusing on precision-guided munitions, flexibility, and expeditionary capabilities. Operations in the Gulf War (1990-1991) demonstrated the effectiveness of air power in modern conflicts. The 21st century saw air power playing a central role in the Global War on Terror, with operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Air power has evolved significantly over the past century, from its earliest days as a reconnaissance tool to its current status as a highly advanced and versatile military asset.  In recent times, technological advancements have transformed air warfare radically. Advances in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and remotely piloted aircraft, Network-centric warfare and the integration of sensors, communications, and information systems, and the development of fifth-generation fighter aircraft have enhanced the effectiveness of air power. The lessons learned from conflicts, coupled with technological innovation, continue to shape the capabilities and strategies of air forces worldwide.

 

Airpower Attributes

 

“Airpower is the most difficult of all forms of military force to measure or even express in precise terms”.

– Winston Churchill

 

Air power is the integrated employment of all air and space assets (military and civil) to control and exploit the air and space environments to achieve national security objectives. It can be defined as the ability to use and leverage air assets and capabilities to achieve strategic, operational, and tactical objectives in the pursuit of national security and military goals. It denotes the ability to project military force by or from a platform in the third dimension above the earth’s surface. Airpower operations encompass various activities and roles, including intelligence gathering, surveillance, transportation, and, most importantly, offensive and defensive operations.  These activities typically involve using multiple platforms and systems, including fighters, bombers, combat support aircraft, unmanned systems, drones, missiles, electronic warfare, command control and communication systems, surveillance, intelligence gathering systems, etc. Its effectiveness depends on various factors, including aircraft capabilities, pilot training, doctrine, strategy and tactics, maintenance, logistics, and integration with other agencies. Airpower is a decisive factor and a game-changer in any war, and its significant roles include shaping the environment, offensive force application, and synergising operations with surface forces.

 

Attributes. Airpower has revolutionised warfare. As a military tool of statecraft, it is best suited for offensive action characterised by flexibility, lethality, reach, rapid response, and the creation of shock and awe by effect-based operations.

 

“War, once declared, must be waged offensively and aggressively. The enemy must not be fended off but smitten down”.

 -Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan

 

• Shock and Awe. Airpower’s attributes of speed, range, precision, tempo, and lethality create psychological effects on the enemy. Its unparalleled and singular ability to concentrate force in time and space enables it to achieve strategic and tactical surprise and a shock effect. The “Shock and Awe” strategy uses the overwhelming and decisive display of air power to paralyse and demoralise an adversary, psychologically impacting the military and civilian populations. These effects extend beyond physical damage and casualties, influencing emotions, perceptions, and behaviours. Strategic bombing is one way of creating shock and awe by deliberate and sustained targeting of enemy strategic assets to cripple the adversary’s ability to wage war. Precision Strikes on critical enemy assets, such as military installations, command centers, and infrastructure, also psychologically impact the adversary. The use of precision weapons during the Kargil operations proved to be the decisive factor in the war’s outcome. Air power can conduct deep strikes into enemy territory, contributing to the shock and awe effect. Balakot strikes had the desired effect of shock and awe, fear, confusion, and a sense of helplessness among the enemy.

 

• Responsiveness. Air power is indisputably the first responder that reacts with agility and adaptability to any evolving security challenges. The responsiveness of airpower refers to the aerial capability to rapidly and effectively respond to emerging situations, threats, or strategic requirements. A responsive airpower capability is critical in modern warfare, where the speed of decision-making and deployment can significantly influence the outcome of military operations. Responsiveness also includes the ability of air power to manoeuvre swiftly, change targets rapidly or change from one mission type to another. Factors like streamlined processes for mobilisation, efficient logistics, flexible basing, adaptive command and control structures, interoperability, training, and readiness add to the responsiveness of the air power. The rapid deployment of forces during the Galwan crisis demonstrated the responsiveness of the Indian Air Force.

 

• Flexibility. Airpower’s flexibility refers to its capacity to rapidly adapt, respond, and operate across various missions, environments, and scenarios. Air forces possess inherent characteristics that make them versatile and capable of addressing multiple challenges. Versatility in Mission Roles is another critical contributory factor to the flexibility of air operations. Air power flexibility allows planners comprehensive options for means and methods, the capability to switch and reassign forces, and the degree of force to apply.

 

• Mobility. Mobility is an essential aspect of the responsiveness of air power, which comes from the unhindered movement of aircraft across varying surface mediums. An all-around capability, including heavy and medium lift, fixed wing and rotary wing, manned and unmanned delivery platforms, landed and air dropped, etc., is essential. A hub and spoke system of induction and subsequent sustenance works well. Helicopters play a vital role in speedy delivery in areas with poor connectivity. More numbers of operating surfaces (helipads and heliports) are beneficial, especially in high-terrain friction areas. Civil aviation assets with appropriate modifications must be integrated into this effort. Integrated logistics management systems are equally essential. Automated logistics handling and disbursement ports would enhance this capability further.

 

• Reach. The reach of air power refers to the geographical and operational range at which air forces or aerial capabilities can effectively operate. Various factors, including the type of aircraft, the capabilities of airbases, the availability of aerial refuelling, and the strategic mobility of air assets, influence the reach of air power. Aerial refuelling capabilities significantly extend the reach of air power by enabling aircraft to cover longer distances or remain on station for extended periods. Air-to-air refuelling aircraft are crucial in supporting the reach of fighter jets and other aerial platforms. Collaborative agreements and partnerships with other nations for access to airbases and facilities contribute to the reach of air power. This allows for strategic positioning and operational flexibility. Over the years, the reach of IAF has increased manifold.

 

• Speed. Speed is a crucial factor that plays a multifaceted role in air warfare. It is critical in air-to-air combat and provides several advantages regarding tactical manoeuvrability, response time, and mission effectiveness. High-speed aircraft and weapon systems can penetrate the enemy’s air defences and escape quickly, creating surprise and a challenge for the enemy. With hypersonic platforms and weapons coming into the fray, the entire character of warfare, particularly air defence, is changing considerably.

 

Air Power Facets

 

Options Generator. The concept of air power as an option generator refers to the diverse range of strategic choices and capabilities that air forces provide in military and security contexts. In dealing with hostile situations, the decision-makers are generally faced with the dilemma of how much force to apply and the availability of options. With its multi-role capability, versatility, flexibility, and ability to deploy air assets quickly over long distances, air power offers strategic flexibility by generating many options. The capability of airpower to project military power beyond national borders in distant locations can be a powerful option for influencing events and achieving strategic objectives. The complex power options range from a rap on the knuckle to a punch on the nose on the other end of the scale. Precision strikes with guided munitions offer a controlled application of force with minimum collateral damage. Air power provides decision-makers with hard and soft power options independently or jointly, along with other statecraft instruments.

 

“Strategic air assault is wasted if it is dissipated piecemeal in sporadic attacks between which the enemy has an opportunity to readjust defences or recuperate”.

 – Henry H. Arnold, General of the Air Force

 

Strategic and/or Tactical. While historically, air support and air defence were the original reasons for forming the Air Forces, their utilisation has grown with a broad spectrum of tactical to strategic capabilities. Air power can be both tactical and strategic, depending on how it is employed and the objectives it aims to achieve. Tactical air power is more closely associated with immediate and specific battlefield objectives. In contrast, strategic air power influences the strategic landscape and the enemy’s ability to sustain a prolonged conflict. Both tactical and strategic air power are essential components of modern air operations.

 

• • Tactical Air Power. Tactical air power is concerned with specific, immediate objectives on the battlefield. It plays a crucial role in supporting surface forces during engagements. This includes battlefield air strikes, interdiction of enemy movements, and battlefield reconnaissance.

 

• • Strategic Air Power. Airpower can create effects at the strategic level of warfare by achieving broader, long-term goals and affecting the overall course of a conflict. It can also immediately and continuously put an enemy’s strategic COGs and critical vulnerabilities at risk. Airpower involves operations that target the enemy’s capacity to wage war on a larger scale, such as their industrial and economic infrastructure, command and control centers, and critical military installations.

 

“If we lose the war in the air, we lose the war, and we lose it quickly”.

– Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery

 

Airpower and Objectives. Contemporary air power refers to using advanced air assets and technologies to achieve military objectives in modern warfare. A clear and practical definition of objectives is significant for air warfare. Clarity in political objectives helps in the formulation of achievable military objectives and orchestration of the war. An effective military strategy (including air strategy) would flow out of these aims and objectives. Lack of clarity may result in high operational costs or complete failure in the worst-case scenario. Another important factor is regarding the unrestricted application of air power. Unrestricted, effect-based, offensive application of airpower accelerates the achievement of military objectives. Restrictions on the application of airpower increase the cost of achieving objectives. This cost could be in terms of time, manpower, or assets. Applying airpower with restrictions is like fighting with one hand tied behind the back. The Russia-Ukraine war reinforces this fact. Back home, the IAF had a strict and constricting mandate not to cross the LOC/IB in the Kargil operations.

 

Escalation Potential. The use of air power in any conflict or military operation carries the potential for escalation, where the intensity or scope of the conflict increases. The chances of escalation can be influenced by various factors, including the nature of the conflict, the type of air power employed, responses of involved parties, attacks on critical targets, precision or indiscriminate strikes, proximity to adversary forces, rules of engagement, international involvement, prevailing regional and global situation, and public opinion, etc. In the Indian context, the use of air power has always been considered as escalatory. This myth was broken after the Balakot strikes, wherein the escalation could be controlled. With its multiple response options, air power allows upward or downward movement on the escalation ladder.

 

“Air warfare cannot be separated into little packets; it knows no boundaries on land and sea other than those imposed by the aircraft’s radius of action; it is a unity and demands unity of command”.

-Air Marshal Arthur Tedder

 

Affordability and Indivisibility. Air power assets are costly, limiting the quantum of air power assets that are affordable and available. The high expenses of airpower are associated with the development, deployment, and maintenance of air forces and their related capabilities. Airpower, which includes aircraft, missiles, and supporting infrastructure, often requires significant financial investment due to the advanced technology involved, rigorous training for personnel, and ongoing operational and Maintenance costs. Construction and maintenance of airbases, hangars, infrastructure like runways, control towers, and other facilities further increase the price. Airpower affordability is crucial for nations when developing and maintaining their air forces. Efforts to enhance airpower affordability often involve balancing maintaining a technologically advanced and capable force while managing costs responsibly. Air power assets are always meagre for the diverse missions they are capable of and /or assigned to them. Operating with meagre resources poses challenges and may require careful prioritisation, innovative solutions, and strategic planning. Airpower, as a military instrument and a dominant force in warfare, must be indivisible to be fully effective. It is necessary due to the interconnectedness and interdependence of its numerous elements. The effectiveness of airpower is maximised when its components work together in a unified and coordinated manner. This concept is particularly relevant in contemporary military thought, where joint and integrated operations are essential for addressing complex and dynamic security challenges.

 

Airpower Employment

 

“Air power, defined as the use of military aircraft and other flying machines in warfare, has become predominant, both as a deterrent to war and, in the eventuality of war, as the devastating force that destroys an enemy’s potential and fatally undermines his will to wage war”.

-General Omar Bradley

 

Roles and Tasks. Airpower, a strategically crucial element, plays diverse roles and is assigned various tasks, reflecting its versatility and strategic importance in modern military operations. These roles and tasks can be broadly categorised into several key areas, each serving specific functions supporting a nation’s defence and security objectives. Airpower is no longer restricted to hard power applications but caters to a full spectrum of capabilities, undertaking various tasks at national and international levels. Besides hard power application during the war, these roles include defence diplomacy, deterrence, air defence, counter-insurgency & and counter-terrorism operations, HADR, and aid to civil authorities. During the war, airpower has a significant role from the commencement of hostilities till the conflict termination. It can prosecute various tasks and missions across the entire spectrum of warfare. The wartime tasks include gaining and maintaining control of the airspace, synergising operations with surface forces, strategic operations to degrade the enemy’s capabilities and will to fight, building up situational awareness by ISR, air mobility, safety and security of own assets, and warfare in the domains of space, cyber, electronic and information.

 

Campaigns and Missions. An air power campaign involves the strategic and systematic use of air forces to achieve specific military or political objectives. These campaigns are often part of a larger military strategy and may be employed independently or in coordination with surface and other forces. Air power campaigns have been a prominent feature of modern warfare, and they can encompass a range of missions and objectives. History of air power application has some interesting examples of these campaigns. A strategic bombing campaign is to undermine the enemy’s capacity and will to fight by targeting key industrial, economic, and population centers, e.g. allied strategic bombing during World War II, including the bombing of German cities and the firebombing of Tokyo. Interdiction campaigns disrupt or delay the enemy’s lines of communication, supply routes, and reinforcement efforts by targeting enemy transportation infrastructure, logistics facilities, and supply convoys, e.g., the Korean and Vietnam Wars. The air superiority campaign aims to gain and maintain airspace control by neutralising enemy aircraft, air defence systems, and aerial reconnaissance capabilities, e.g., the battle of Britain during World War II and air superiority operations in the Gulf War. Counterinsurgency (COIN) and Counterterrorism (CT) Campaigns are to combat insurgencies and terrorist organisations by conducting air strikes against insurgent and terrorist targets, including leadership, training camps, and logistics. Other campaigns include Electronic Warfare (EW), Cyberwarfare, and ISR campaigns. Various missions are undertaken during a campaign, e.g. air-to-air combat, strikes on enemy targets, reconnaissance, airlift, medical evacuations, search and rescue operations, psychological operations, etc.

 

Airpower and Diplomacy. Defence diplomacy is exercised by utilising several defence activities like defence cooperation, exchange visits, joint exercises, training, loans or gifts of equipment, etc.  Defence diplomacy and air power are interconnected elements of a nation’s overall strategy, and they often work in tandem to achieve political, security, and strategic objectives. The use of air power can have significant diplomatic implications, and diplomatic efforts can influence the use of air power, showcasing the strategic influence air power holds. A robust air power capability can serve as a deterrent, influencing the behaviour of potential adversaries. It is also an effective tool for political signalling and strategic coercion. Deploying air assets can be a diplomatic tool to convey resolve and commitment and signal seriousness and willingness to protect national interests. The diplomatic message is that a nation possesses the military strength to defend its interests, promoting stability and preventing conflict. Air power is often a critical component of joint military operations involving coalitions. Participating in joint air exercises can be a form of military diplomacy. Multi-lateral, multi-service and multi-domain exercises are essential for defence cooperation during hostilities and even for grey zone operations during peace. Even without a military alliance, a certain degree of interoperability with friendly foreign forces is desirable. The effective integration of diplomacy and air power can contribute to conflict prevention, crisis management, and the pursuit of national interests within the global community. A suitable escalation matrix can be developed by combining the frequency and extent of these defence activities.

 

Airpower and Non-kinetic, Multi-domain Warfare. Non-kinetic warfare, multi-domain warfare, and grey zone warfare {including no war, no peace situation (NWNP)} are some of the buzzwords in the lexicon of defence and security analysts. Air power is not limited to kinetic warfare, which involves using physical force to achieve military objectives. Non-kinetic warfare, referred to by some as non-contact or non-lethal warfare, encompasses a variety of strategies and capabilities that do not rely on traditional firepower. Multi-domain warfare refers to military operations that span multiple domains, such as land, sea, air, space, and cyberspace. Grey zone conflicts, also referred to by some as shadow wars, have been defined in many ways. They are not formal or traditional conflicts or full-scale wars between nations or states.  If war and peace were given the shades of black and white, grey zone operations or conflicts would fall somewhere between the peace-conflict continuum. One of the definitions of the grey zone conflict is “the contested arena somewhere between routine statecraft and open warfare.” Two significant characteristics of grey zone conflicts are that the threshold is maintained below the level of full-scale war and that the means of operations are not restricted only to military actions. Various instruments of power, often asymmetric and ambiguous, are used to achieve the objectives. Air power plays a significant role in grey zone operations as well. Air power can play a critical role in these non-kinetic, multi-domain, grey zone operations, offering unique capabilities and options that contribute to the overall success of joint and integrated operations. The involvement and contribution of Airpower in these types of warfare fall under three categories: application of hard power, operations carried out to mitigate disaster-like situations arising due to hostile enemy actions, and protection of own assets.

 

AP and Internal Security. Counterinsurgency (COIN) operations involve a comprehensive approach to address and neutralise insurgent threats within a country. Air power can be crucial in supporting counterinsurgency efforts, providing unique capabilities that complement surface forces. Airborne platforms, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and surveillance aircraft, can monitor vast areas and infiltration routes, providing real-time intelligence on insurgent activities, movements, and hideouts. This enhances situational awareness for ground forces. Airlift capabilities enable the rapid deployment of troops, equipment, and supplies to areas affected by insurgency. This responsiveness allows for quick reinforcement of the vulnerable regions and supports the mobility of counterinsurgency forces. Air power facilitates sustenance by transporting logistics, including ammunition, medical supplies, and equipment, to remote or inaccessible areas. Air assets can be used for psychological operations (PSYOPS), aerial broadcasting, disruption of insurgent communications, and medical support. Air power can also provide multiple options for an aerial attack against insurgent strongholds, leadership targets, and critical infrastructure if so decided. These could be carried out by fighter aircraft, helicopters, or unmanned platforms with precision or non-precision weapons. Generally, offensive use of airpower on one’s soil is avoided as it causes further alienation of one’s people.

 

HADR and Aid to Civil Authorities. HADR (Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief) refers to the coordinated efforts of various organisations, including military forces, to assist affected populations during and after natural or man-made disasters. Airpower plays a critical role in HADR operations due to its ability to rapidly deploy resources and reach remote areas. Air power is undisputedly the first responder, providing crucial support in disaster-stricken regions within the country or abroad. Airpower can quickly deploy aircraft, including transport planes and helicopters, to deliver relief supplies, rescue personnel, and equipment to affected areas. This rapid response is essential for addressing urgent needs in the aftermath of a disaster. During the 2015 Nepal earthquake, the first IAF aircraft with relief material was airborne within a record time of less than four hours. Transport aircraft and helicopters are used to airlift humanitarian aid, medical supplies, food, water, and other essential items to areas inaccessible by ground. Airlift capabilities are particularly crucial in reaching isolated or disaster-stricken regions. Airpower facilitates evacuating injured or critically ill individuals from disaster-affected areas to medical facilities with better resources and capabilities. Search and rescue platforms locate and extract individuals stranded or in distress. Mobile field hospitals and disaster relief teams are the first to be taken to the affected areas.  Airpower also facilitates coordination between military forces, civil authorities, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), ensuring a collaborative and efficient response to humanitarian crises. Indian Air Force works and trains in coordination with the medical services and NDRF (National Disaster Relief Force). In the case of disasters such as wildfires, air forces deploy fire-fighting aircraft to drop water or fire retardants to contain and extinguish the flames. Airpower’s flexibility, speed, and reach are invaluable in providing timely and effective humanitarian assistance and disaster relief.

 

Airpower Application

 

Although it looks simple, applying aerospace power is a complex process.

 

Centralised Planning and Decentralised Execution. This fundamental concept has evolved over decades of aerial employment and is often applied to air warfare. These terms refer to the method of decision-making, formulation, and execution of plans. Effective air warfare usually involves a combined approach, where centralised planning is integrated with decentralised execution. Air operations must be centrally controlled to achieve advantageous synergies, establish practical priorities, capitalise on unique strategic and operation flexibility, ensure unity of purpose, and minimise the potential for competing objectives. Execution of air missions needs to be decentralised to achieve effective spans of control, responsiveness, and tactical flexibility. This approach leverages the strengths of both concepts, allowing for strategic coherence while maintaining the agility required for effective tactical operations. Robust communication, information-sharing mechanisms, and feedback loops are essential for highly dynamic air warfare.  These facilitators allow the decentralised units to have access to requisite information so that they can adjust their plans as needed while remaining aligned with the overall strategy. The feedback helps higher formations to refine plans and adapt strategies based on the evolving operational environment.

 

• • Centralised Planning. Centralised planning involves coordinating various resources, including aircraft, personnel, intelligence, and logistics. The allocation of resources, including aircraft types, munitions, and support assets, is typically managed centrally to optimise their use in achieving strategic objectives. In a centrally planned approach, decision-making authority is concentrated at higher levels of command, typically within centralised headquarters or strategic planning centers. High-ranking commanders formulate strategic objectives, mission plans, and overall campaign strategies. The central command structure ensures that all elements of air power are aligned with the overarching strategic goals. The centralised planning process allows for the development of a coherent strategic vision that considers long-term objectives and the alignment of air assets with broader military and political goals.

 

• • Decentralised Execution. Once the overall plan is formulated, decentralised execution is carried out by delegating authority to lower echelons of command. Tactical decisions are often made at the operational and tactical levels, closer to the engagement point. Decentralised execution allows for greater adaptability and flexibility in responding to dynamic and rapidly changing situations and emerging opportunities or threats. Local commanders have the autonomy to make real-time decisions based on the evolving circumstances on the battlefield.

 

• • Resource Allocation. Providing resources (platforms, sensors, and weapons) to the command headquarters for fighting the air war is the responsibility of the service headquarters. These resources are allotted ab-initio, and reallocation is done during the war, depending on the situation. The initial allocation depends on the nature of the threat envisaged in the command Area of responsibility. The Allotment plan must be prepared after a detailed analysis of factors like enemy capabilities, the enemy concept of operation, terrain, likely employment philosophy, end state, war endurance, etc.

 

• • Active Monitoring. In the orchestration of air war, the service headquarters’ roles include conveying higher directions, monitoring the progress of operations in all zones/fronts, and providing the required wherewithal. Active monitoring means listening out or observing and collecting data continuously, analysing, anticipating, and proactively providing resources from the reserve or transferring from one zone to the other.

 

 “Air control can be established by superiority in numbers, by better employment, by better equipment, or by a combination of these factors.”

– Carl Andrew Spaatz

Control of Air. Air control is essential and a fundamental principle for effectively employing air power.

 

• • Air dominance. This is a generic term meaning dominating the domain of the air. It is like saying that Nadal or Djokovic dominate the tennis circuit or Tiger Woods dominate the golf world. In the context of air warfare, the genesis of this term started with the United States when they started their F22 program and the fifth generation F-35 aircraft, calling it air domination fighter, claiming that the aircraft has technology so superior that it’ll dominate the skies. USA has named its next sixth generation program the New Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) program. The USA has dominated the skies for years with superior technology, which China is now challenging with its fifth and sixth-generation aircraft and systems.

 

“To have command of the air means to cut an enemy’s army and navy from their bases of operation and nullify their chances of winning the war.”

-Giulio Douhet

 

• • Command / Control of the Air. These terms indicate the prevailing state in the air war, i.e., which side is getting the better of the other one. Both terms are loosely used interchangeably, but there is a subtle difference regarding the level. It is not the fighter aircraft alone that contributes to commanding or controlling the skies; it is the entire gambit of air power. These terms indicate the freedom to use the air medium to one’s advantage and the denial of the same to the enemy.

 

• • Air Supremacy, Air Superiority, and Favourable Air Situation. These three terms indicate the degree of command and control. They are indicative of three factors, i.e. the volume of airspace, duration, and extent of possible enemy interference. Air supremacy is when the entire airspace (own and enemy) is under its control for the duration of hostilities, and the enemy cannot interfere in any way with operations. Most US air wars have been against enemies that are weak in air war capability, and the US forces have been able to achieve and maintain air superiority. Air superiority exists when the area is somewhat limited geographically and does not cover the entire air space; time-wise, it may be restricted to a few hours or days, and the enemy may be able to interfere to some extent  (not to a prohibitively great extent). A favourable air situation is the lowest level of control, influencing much smaller areas for a limited duration and with a higher (not high enough to jeopardise the success of one’s missions) degree of enemy interference. Air supremacy is achieved when the entire enemy’s air power is neutralised, and the whole enemy’s air power cannot use the medium of the air. Achieving air supremacy is a strategic objective requiring a dedicated counter-air campaign. On the other end of the spectrum is a favourable air situation like a tactical umbrella. The degree to which air control can be achieved largely depends upon the differential air power of the two opposing sides. It needs to be decided and specified clearly in the objectives.

 

Targeting. Air power and targeting are closely interconnected in air operations, and effective targeting is essential for the success of air campaigns. Targeting involves identifying, selecting, and engaging specific targets to achieve military, political, or strategic goals. Targets may range from strategic targets to weaken the overall war-making capabilities of the adversary to tactical targets to shape the battlefield. The targeting cycle involves a systematic process of deciding which targets to engage, determining the location and analysis of those targets, and planning and executing air operations. This cycle is iterative, with constant updates based on intelligence, changes in the operational environment, and mission outcomes.

 

• • Time-sensitive Targeting. TST involves identifying and engaging targets that emerge or change quickly on the battlefield. Air power’s speed and flexibility make it well-suited for addressing time-sensitive targets.

 

• • Dynamic Targeting. Dynamic targeting involves the ability to adjust targeting priorities in real-time based on the evolving situation. In the tactical sense, it also means engaging targets on the move. Air power, particularly aircraft with advanced sensors and communication systems, is well-suited for dynamic targeting. A networked environment is helpful for both time-sensitive and dynamic targeting.

 

• • Joint Targeting. Air power always operates in conjunction with surface forces. Joint targeting involves coordinated efforts to achieve synergies across land, sea, air, and special operations forces for comprehensive and effective targeting.

 

• • Integrated Planning. Integration of operational plans is the most important aspect of joint warfare. The meagre assets cannot be kept idle or frittered away against trivial targets. The operational plans between the air and the surface forces must be fully integrated. The pre-decided war plans and the dynamic in war planning must be firmed up jointly. The joint target list should be made with much thought and deliberation. The list should contain essential targets, prioritised according to the likely areas of engagement. Duplication of effort should be avoided with clearly defined responsibility for engagement.

 

Parallel Operations. Parallel air operations are a strategic approach to leverage air power effectively to achieve strategic and operational objectives. Parallel air operations are the simultaneous execution of multiple air operations, often in different areas or against other targets. This concept is employed to achieve various objectives, including gaining a strategic advantage, overwhelming the enemy’s defences, or creating confusion and uncertainty. Parallel air operations can occur at different levels of warfare, strategic, operational, or tactical, and involve a coordinated effort of air assets to achieve a common goal. Air power can conduct different air campaigns concurrently, subjecting the enemy to multiple crises and creating decision dilemmas or paralysis. Successful parallel air operations require high coordination and integration among air assets, such as fighters, combat support aircraft, surveillance aircraft, and electronic warfare platforms. Parallel air operations demand flexibility and adaptability to respond to changing circumstances. The ability to adjust plans and allocate resources dynamically is crucial for its success.

 

Effect-based Operations. EBO is a military concept that focuses on achieving specific effects on the adversary’s capabilities rather than simply targeting individual enemy forces or assets. This approach emphasises using air power to influence the overall strategic, operational, and tactical situation on the battlefield. EBO is applicable at multiple levels of warfare, from the strategic level, where it can influence the overall course of a conflict, to the operational level, where it shapes campaigns, down to the tactical level, where it can impact specific battles and engagements. The success of EBO largely depends upon integrating various capabilities and joint planning. The process starts with defining the desired effects, followed by working backward to determine the necessary actions to achieve those effects. It requires a comprehensive understanding of the adversary’s vulnerabilities and dependencies. EBO often involves making rapid decisions based on real-time intelligence and adapting to dynamic situations on the battlefield. Information operations and precision airstrikes play a significant role in EBO.

 

Air power’s most significant limitation is our lack of understanding of its potential.

-Lt Col Johnny Jones

 

Airpower Limitations. While air power has proven to be a critical component of modern military operations, it also has limitations. Understanding these limitations is crucial for military planners to develop comprehensive and practical strategies that leverage air power’s strengths while addressing its inherent constraints. Some critical limitations of air power include the inability to hold ground, weather constraints, dependence on operating surfaces, and logistic support. While air power can shape the battlefield and the operating environment, it cannot replace the surface forces for occupying and holding territory. Ground forces are still essential for achieving and maintaining control over specific areas. Adverse weather conditions, such as heavy rain, thunderstorms, fog, or high winds, can significantly impact the effectiveness of air operations. Poor visibility and unpredictable weather can hinder the ability of aircraft to navigate, target accurately, and conduct missions. Air power relies heavily on operating surfaces (runways and heliports/helipads) and logistics support. The ability to shift from one area to another area of operation needs supporting infrastructure. Dual-use infrastructure with civil and military capability is the most cost-effective utilisation of resources. More operating surfaces, including highways as runways, add to the dispersion capability and flexibility. Air power also needs fuel, spare parts, weapons, maintenance, and arming facilities. Disruptions in the supply chain or losing critical logistic infrastructure can hamper sustained air operations.  

 

Airpower: Changing Trajectory

 

Technology & Airpower. Man can walk or swim without technology but cannot fly without the technology. The role of technology in air power is profound and continually evolving, shaping the capabilities, effectiveness, and strategic impact of air forces worldwide. Technological advancements have enhanced aircraft performance, mission capabilities, communication systems, weapons systems, sensor networks, and effectiveness in modern warfare. Air power depends upon advanced aerodynamics, electronics, metallurgy, and computer technology developments. Artificial intelligence, machine learning, quantum computing, and minimisation are technologies with maximum impact on air warfare, and the combination of these increases the computing power of aerial systems while reducing their weight and size. This reliance on technology becomes even more apparent when one considers the space aspects of air power. Aviation-related modern technologies are:-

 

• • • Hypersonic weapons systems.
    • Integrated Ballistic and Cruise Missile System.
    • Development of gas turbines and engines.
    • AI-enabled autonomous systems (Land, Air and Sea)
    • Unmanned platforms, Drones, and Swarm technology
    • Development of sensors and seekers for multiple users.
    • Metallurgy and composites.
    • Network-centric environment / Internet of things/system of systems.

 

Harnessing Emergent Technologies. Technology superiority needs to be a cornerstone of national military strategy. Converting technology into air power capability is a time-consuming activity with a long gestation period. It demands a proactive approach to stay current and relevant. A comprehensive defence science and technology strategy needs to be defined. It should contain the plan to harness technology and convert it into decisive military capability. It would provide strategic focus by making a long-term and medium-term technology plan for guidance with periodic review. A top-down approach, guided by a policy document and supported by adequate monetary allotment, would ensure success.  A suitable ecosystem needs to be developed to bring users (defence in this case), academia, R&D (DRDO), and industry (DPSU and private) together in unison.

 

• • Unmanned Platforms. The use of unmanned platforms and systems is growing in warfare. This shift is expected to continue as technology advances and the capabilities of unmanned systems improve further. Drones of various sizes and capabilities are taking over the tasks of conventional platforms. Their use is spread across the entire spectrum of threats, ranging from sub-conventional and conventional to long-range attacks. Investment in anti-drone systems is also a need of the hour.

 

• • Loyal Wing Man Concept. Both manned and unmanned platforms have their respective advantages and disadvantages. The thought process for the next generation of platforms is to harness both advantages and develop networked systems wherein both can work in an integrated manner. Research is being done in many countries on the “Loyal wingman” concept. HAL in India is also working on the Combat Air Team System (CATS) program on similar lines.

 

• • Next-Generation Aircraft. Sixth-generation aircraft are still in the development phase; however, based on current trends in air technology, sixth-generation aircraft will likely have several key features that will shape air strategy in the future. They are likely to have increased automation with advanced AI and machine learning algorithms that will enable autonomous decision-making and allow them to adapt to changing situations quickly. They would also have enhanced stealth capabilities, making them virtually invisible to radar and other detection systems. Integrated sensor systems in these aircraft will provide comprehensive situational awareness and the ability to engage targets with great precision. Sixth-generation aircraft are expected to significantly impact air strategy in the future, with their advanced capabilities enabling air forces to operate with greater autonomy and strike enemy targets with unprecedented precision and speed. However, as with any new technology, challenges may be associated with introducing sixth-generation aircraft, including developing new tactics, training programs, and support infrastructure to realise their full potential.

 

Getting Smarter. Air power targeting is all about lethality, standoff, and precision. Precision in the context of air power refers to the ability to deliver munitions with high accuracy and selectivity, minimising collateral damage and achieving specific military objectives. The evolution of precision capabilities has been a transformative factor in modern air warfare. Precision in air power is primarily associated with developing and using guided munitions, called precision-guided munitions (PGMs) or smart bombs. These munitions are equipped with guidance systems, such as GPS, inertial navigation, laser guidance, or hybrid systems, enabling them to target and strike specific locations precisely. Precision-guided munitions can strike intended targets with a high degree of accuracy, reducing the risk of unintentional harm to civilians or non-combatants and minimising collateral damage. Smart weapons are a category of airpower assets designed to strike specific targets with a high degree of accuracy precisely. These weapons have some or all the characteristics like precision, standoff, fire and forget autonomous operation, search, and strike, as well as the ability to loiter and strike specific or multiple targets, etc. They include laser-guided bombs, loiter ammunition, anti-radiation weapons, anti-ship weapons, runway denial weapons, joint direct attack munitions (JDAM), beyond visual range missiles, standoff land attack missiles (SLAM), joint air-to-surface standoff missiles (JASSM), sensor fused weapons, etc. Using smart weapons enhances the precision, effectiveness, and flexibility of airpower, enabling military forces to conduct targeted strikes with reduced collateral damage. These weapons play a crucial role in modern military operations, allowing for more discriminate and strategic use of force.

 

Networked Air Environment. Airpower requires effective integration of platforms, weapons, systems, operators, bases, logistics, and supporting infrastructure. Networked air power refers to the integration and coordination of various elements within an air force, as well as with other services and agencies, through advanced communication and information-sharing technologies. This concept aims to enhance air operations’ effectiveness, efficiency, and synergy by creating a network-centric approach. Networked air power relies on robust communication systems to facilitate the rapid exchange of information. The networking enables different elements of an air force to collaborate in real-time by joint mission planning, coordination of assets, and sharing resources to optimise air operations’ overall effectiveness. It improves situational awareness by integrating information from various sensors, such as radar, satellites, and reconnaissance aircraft, enabling faster and more informed decision-making. Air defence operations require a real-time flow of information to numerous stakeholders, and integrated networks with good architecture supported by suitable applications are necessary. The information flow should be on a need-to-know basis to avoid information overload. These networks need to be adequately secured from external interference. The networks would have to have redundancies and protective measures regarding firewalls and anti-virus systems.  Alternate standby nodes are required with plug-and-play or power-up-and-play options. Integrating different platforms, including manned and unmanned aircraft, into a unified network enhances interoperability. This interoperability extends within the Air Force and with ground forces, naval forces, and other agencies.

 

“Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war, not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur”.

– Giulio Douhet

 

Expanding Envelope. The expanding envelope of air warfare refers to the continual evolution, advancement, and broadening of the capabilities, technologies, and strategies employed in aerial operations besides the physical dimension of air to space. Over the years, air warfare has undergone significant transformations driven by technological advancements, changes in geopolitical landscapes, and evolving security challenges. The envelope is expanding in the following ways:-

 

• • Air Space to Aerospace Power. Space has become an important domain, and warfare has increased. The term airpower has changed to aerospace power, with the aerial warfare envelope expanding to the space domain. Space-based systems and applications have got embedded in every aspect of aerial warfare (for communications, surveillance, navigation targeting, etc.). In such a scenario of high dependence on space-based systems, space warfare (i.e. denial of space operations to the enemy and freedom of own forces to use the medium of space), both offensive and defensive, becomes very important.

 

• • Hypersonic weapons. Developing hypersonic weapons and vehicles introduces new challenges and opportunities regarding speed, manoeuvrability, and strategic implications. Hypersonic weapons provide new opportunities for rapid response and long-range strike capabilities with precision. They also pose new challenges in terms of protection and air defence.  This could lead to the development of new technologies, such as directed energy weapons or advanced sensors, to counter the threat posed by hypersonic weapons. Also, protective infrastructure would be required to withstand these weapons’ destructive power.

 

• • Widening of Air Defence Spectrum. In the past, AD had to protect against conventional threats, i.e. weapons launched from conventional platforms and short-range surface-to-surface missiles. With the proliferation of unmanned and other smaller platforms, sub-conventional threats have been added to the list of AD threats. The vital areas and vital installations need to be protected against these threats. Appropriate detection systems and weapons are required to deal with them. On the other end of the spectrum, the ballistic missile threat has increased over the years. Ballistic missile Defence (BMD) systems that can look and intercept very far are required. AD threat spectrum has widened on both sides.

 

• • Multi-domain Warfare. Domains like cyber, space, electronics, and information are becoming more involved in warfare. China’s formation of a Joint Strategic Support Force (JSSF) as a separate service with defensive and offensive capabilities in the four domains mentioned above indicates future challenges. A certain amount of reorientation is required to deal with these changes.

 

• • Reach and Rapid Deployment. Advances in air mobility, including strategic airlift and air-to-air refuelling, allow for rapid deployment of forces to respond to emerging threats across long distances, contributing to global strategic influence and deterrence.

 

• • Standoff Weapons & Beyond Visual Range Combat. The development of long-range sensors and standoff weapons has expanded the combat envelope beyond the visual range.

 

Conclusion

 

“The core competencies of airpower are optional for the other Services. They can elect to play or not play in that arena. However, if the nation is to remain capable and competent in air and space, someone must pay attention across the whole spectrum; that is why there is an Air Force”.

–        General Ronald R. Fogleman, 15th Chief of Staff, USAF

 

Airpower is the integrated employment of all air and space forces to control and exploit the air and space environments to achieve national security objectives. Air power exploits its operating medium’s properties, unique operational characteristics, and capabilities to provide the nation with a broad range of military options. Air power’s speed, range, and elevation are unique. Air power derives these characteristics from its operating medium that covers the globe, has vertical depth, and has no obstructions. The speed, range, and elevation of air power can be exploited to achieve unmatched responsiveness, mobility, and perspective. These capabilities, when employed adequately through centralised control – decentralised execution, priority, balance, and concentration provide a range of military options to meet national security interests across the spectrum of peace, crisis, and armed conflict. Air power’s strengths are air superiority, reliable global mobility, rapid global employment, and acute global awareness. These strengths are unique and are fundamental to the Air Force mission. The Air Force adds unmatched expertise and military capability to the nation’s defence force through these strengths. The determinants of a successful air campaign are complex and interwoven.

 

Air and space power fundamentally differ from surface forces, and their tenets must guide their employment. The air arms of the surface forces must focus on the specific surface operational requirements. Over the years, air power has evolved rapidly with technology and is no longer an adjunct or merely a supporter of warfare but a critical war-fighting imperative. Airpower should not be viewed as an auxiliary or complementary capability subordinate to another Service.  Each service has its core competencies and well-defined roles and tasks. The answer lies in understanding and exploiting them jointly without encroaching or treating others as a support service.

 

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References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

References:-

1. Colonel Phillip S. Meilinger, “Ten Propositions Regarding Airpower”, USAF School of Advanced Airpower Studies, Maxwell AFB 1995

2. J Jones, “Airpower”, Air and Space Power Journal, Air University.

3. Gp Capt Kishore Kumar Khera (Retd), “Combat Aviation: Flight Path”, K W Publishers Pvt Ltd 2020.

4. Air Mshl D Choudhury (Retd), “Aerospace Strategy: An Idea Whose Time Has Come”.

6. Jasjit Singh, “Air Power in Modern Warfare”, Lancer International, 30 Jan 1991.

7. Manpreet Sethi and Shalini Chawla, “Strategic Advantage of Air Power: Select Writings of Air Commodore Jasjit Singh”, KW Publishers Pvt Ltd, 1 Jan 2019

8. Doctrines of the Indian Air Force 1995, 2012 and 2022.

9. Air Mshal Anil Chopra (Retd), “Primacy of Airpower”. Air Power Asia, 28 Nov 2020.

10. Series of posts on airpower on the blog “Air Marshal’s Perspective”. https://55nda.com/blogs/anil-khosla/?s=airpower

 

Disclaimer:

Information and data included in the blog are for educational & non-commercial purposes only and have been carefully adapted, excerpted, or edited from reliable and accurate sources. All copyrighted material belongs to respective owners and is provided only for wider dissemination.