China – Page 7 – Air Marshal's Perspective

August 3, 2025August 2, 2025

713: THE BOHAI SEA MONSTER: CHINA’S LEAP IN WING-IN-GROUND-EFFECT TECHNOLOGY

My Article was Published in the Aug 25 Edition of

“Life of Soldier” journal.

In July 2025, grainy images surfaced on social media, capturing a mysterious maritime behemoth skimming the Bohai Sea off China’s northern coast. The massive four-engine vehicle, dubbed the “Bohai Sea Monster” by intrigued observers, is a wing-in-ground-effect (WIG) craft, a hybrid of aircraft and boat that revives a Cold War-era Soviet concept. It is designed to fly just above the water’s surface, leveraging ground effect for enhanced efficiency, stealth, and speed, potentially outmanoeuvring warships and evading radar.

The Chinese craft features a flying boat hull, military camouflage, and a T-tail with twin vertical stabilisers, indicating a possible amphibious military role. Although China has not officially confirmed the existence of the craft, no official name, designation, or manufacturer has been revealed, leaving uncertainty about whether it is a technology demonstrator or intended for full-scale production. Its development appears to revive Soviet-era technology for modern military use, prompting questions about its role in China’s naval strategy. This advanced prototype showcases China’s growing commitment to leading in cutting-edge maritime technologies.

A Glimpse

The leaked images provide tantalising clues about the Bohai Sea Monster’s design. One photo shows the craft gliding just above the water’s surface, harnessing the ground-effect phenomenon that allows WIG vehicles to “float” on a cushion of compressed air trapped between their wings and the sea. The second image captures it stationary on a pier, revealing a boat-shaped fuselage, a T-tail configuration with two vertical stabilisers, and wingtip sponsons for stability during takeoff and landing. Four jet engines, mounted high above the wings, suggest powerful propulsion, with possible downward-angled nozzles to enhance lift in ground effect. The craft’s sleek, utilitarian design hints at a military focus, prioritising speed and payload over aesthetic considerations.

Estimated to be comparable in size to China’s AG600 amphibious aircraft (wingspan around 38 meters), the Bohai Sea Monster appears built for heavy-duty roles. Its jet propulsion likely enables speeds exceeding 250 knots (460 km/h), far surpassing those of traditional naval vessels. However, this speed comes at a cost as jet engines consume fuel rapidly, potentially limiting endurance compared to turboprop or hybrid-electric alternatives. The craft’s low-altitude flight, typically 3-10 meters above the water, makes it difficult to detect by radar, offering a stealthy profile that could evade conventional maritime defences, such as mines or submarines.

Strategic Implications

China’s development of the Bohai Sea Monster aligns with its broader military modernisation, emphasising asymmetric platforms to project power in contested regions such as the South China Sea and the Taiwan Strait. WIG craft offer unique advantages in littoral environments, where traditional naval ships face threats from anti-ship missiles and submarines. By skimming the surface, the Bohai Sea Monster could rapidly deploy troops, deliver supplies, or conduct maritime patrols, supporting China’s island garrisons in the Spratlys or Paracels.

The Bohai Sea Monster’s low-flying profile and high speed make it a challenging target for air defences, though it remains vulnerable in high-threat combat zones. Rough sea states, such as those in the Taiwan Strait (often exceeding Sea State 3), could also limit its operational window, a challenge faced by earlier Soviet WIG craft, like the Lun-class ekranoplan.

The Bohai Sea Monster could transform naval warfare by providing Beijing with a versatile platform for rapid troop deployment, cargo transport, and strategic surprise. Its potential roles could include:-

- Amphibious Operations. Rapid troop transport to seize or reinforce disputed territories, complementing China’s Type 075 amphibious assault ships.

- Logistics and Resupply. Delivering critical supplies like fuel, munitions, or medical equipment to remote outposts, reducing reliance on vulnerable sea lanes.

- Anti-Submarine Warfare. Equipped with sonar or magnetic anomaly detectors, it could hunt submarines in shallow waters.

- Search and Rescue. Adapting civilian applications of the AG600, the WIG craft could support disaster relief or maritime rescue missions.

Global Development of WIG Technology

The Bohai Sea Monster draws inspiration from Soviet ekranoplans, developed during the Cold War to exploit ground-effect flight for military advantage. The USSR’s Lun-class, armed with anti-ship missiles, and the massive Caspian Sea Monster demonstrated the potential of WIG technology. Still, high costs and operational limitations led to their abandonment. China, however, has leveraged its expertise in aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and composite materials to revive this concept. The craft’s jet engines, possibly derived from military turbojets like the WS-10, indicate a focus on speed over fuel efficiency. Future iterations could explore hybrid-electric propulsion, aligning with global trends in sustainable aviation.

The Bohai Sea Monster is part of a global resurgence in WIG technology. Russia continues to explore ekranoplan designs for Arctic and Black Sea operations, while smaller nations, such as Singapore and South Korea, experiment with civilian WIG ferries. Commercial applications, such as high-speed cargo transport or tourism, could also emerge, leveraging the efficiency of ground-effect flight. However, military applications currently dominate efforts, driven by the need for rapid and stealthy platforms in contested maritime zones.

The United States, through DARPA’s Liberty Lifter program, aims to develop a heavy-lift WIG craft capable of transoceanic transport. With a first flight planned for 2028-2029, the Liberty Lifter targets a payload capacity exceeding 100 tons, dwarfing the Bohai Sea Monster’s estimated capabilities. Designed by companies such as General Atomics and Aurora Flight Sciences, it prioritises turboprop efficiency and rough-sea operability, addressing the limitations of earlier WIG designs.

China’s Project: Prospects and Challenges.

China’s secrecy surrounding the Bohai Sea Monster, lacking an official designation or acknowledgement, fuels speculation. Higher-resolution images or test footage may reveal more about its capabilities, such as payload, range, or armament. For now, it may be a technology demonstrator or an operational prototype. Still, its implications are clear: China is betting on WIG craft to gain a strategic advantage in the Indo-Pacific. The Bohai Sea Monster suggests Beijing is closer to fielding a functional WIG fleet, potentially deploying squadrons by the early 2030s.

Despite its promise, the Bohai Sea Monster faces hurdles. Environmental factors, such as high waves or crosswinds, can restrict operations, requiring advanced stabilisation systems. Maintenance of jet engines in salty maritime conditions presents logistical challenges, while crew training for low-altitude, high-speed flight requires specialised expertise. Integrating WIG craft into China’s naval strategy will also require doctrinal shifts, balancing their niche capabilities against traditional platforms, such as destroyers or aircraft carriers.

Conclusion

The Bohai Sea Monster is more than a curiosity; it’s a bold statement of China’s technological ambition. By reviving WIG technology, Beijing is carving a niche in naval warfare, blending speed, stealth, and versatility to challenge Western dominance. As the U.S. races to counter with its Liberty Lifter, the Indo-Pacific is poised to become a testing ground for these maritime giants. Whether the Bohai Sea Monster evolves into a game-changer or a costly experiment remains to be seen, but its emergence underscores a new era of innovation in military technology.

Please Add Value to the write-up with your views on the subject.

For regular updates, please register your email here:-

Subscribe

References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

Pics Courtesy: Internet

Disclaimer:

Information and data included in the blog are for educational & non-commercial purposes only and have been carefully adapted, excerpted, or edited from reliable and accurate sources. All copyrighted material belongs to respective owners and is provided only for wider dissemination.

References:-

Axe, David. “China’s ‘Bohai Sea Monster’ Wing-in-Ground-Effect Craft Spotted in Tests.” The National Interest, July 2025.

South China Morning Post. “Mystery ‘Bohai Monster’ Wing-In-Ground Effect Craft Spotted in China’s Bohai Sea.” SCMP, July 2025.

Sutton, H. I. “New Chinese WIG Craft Spotted – ‘Bohai Monster’ May Be a Military Ekranoplan.” Naval News, July 2025.

Fisher, Richard D., Jr. “China’s Wing-in-Ground-Effect Craft: A New Dimension in Maritime Power Projection.” Jamestown Foundation China Brief, Vol. 25, No. 14, August 2025.

Gady, Franz-Stefan. “The Return of the Ekranoplan? China’s WIG Craft and Regional Security.” The Diplomat, July 2025.

Hall, David W., and E. Eugene Larrabee. Ground Effect Machines: Design and Applications. Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2000.

Holmes, James R. “China’s Maritime Strategy and the Role of Amphibious Platforms.” Naval War College Review, Vol. 77, No. 3, Summer 2024.

Office of Naval Intelligence. “China’s People’s Liberation Army Navy: 2025 Modernisation Outlook.” Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Navy, 2025.

Rozhdestvensky, Kirill V. “Wing-in-Ground Effect Vehicles: Modern Developments and Applications.” Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Vol. 42, No. 3, 2006, pp. 211–283.

Sutton, H. I. “China’s Mystery WIG Craft: The Bohai Sea Monster Unveiled.” Covert Shores, July 2025.

U.S. Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). “Liberty Lifter Program: Technical Overview and Progress Report.” DARPA.mil, March 2025.

Xinhua News Agency. “AVIC AG600 Amphibious Aircraft Receives Civilian Certification.” April 15, 2025.

July 17, 2025July 16, 2025

705: CHINA STRENGTHENS SPACE STATION OPERATIONS WITH TIANZHOU-9 RESUPPLY MISSION

My article was published on “The EurasianTimes” website

on 16 Jul 25.

On July 15, 2025, at 5:34 a.m. Beijing Time, China commemorated another milestone in its ambitious space program with the successful launch of the Tianzhou-9 cargo spacecraft from the Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site in Hainan Province. Tianzhou-9 ascended into the predawn sky to deliver essential cargo supplies to the Tiangong space station, China’s orbiting outpost in low Earth orbit.

Launched aboard a Long March-7 Y10 rocket from the Wenchang Space Launch Site in Hainan Province, Tianzhou-9 reached orbit approximately 10 minutes after lift-off. Just over three hours later, it autonomously docked with the Tiangong station’s Tianhe core module, completing a rapid and exact rendezvous manoeuvre. This fast and precise docking underscores the maturity of China’s automated rendezvous and docking technology, a crucial capability for sustaining long-term space missions.

This mission represents the fourth cargo resupply flight since Tiangong entered its application and development phase. The mission highlights China’s increasing confidence in orbital logistics and its capacity to sustain an independent, fully operational space station.

Tianzhou-9’s Cargo

Tianzhou-9 reportedly carried between 6.5 and 7.2 tonnes of cargo, comprising essential living supplies, advanced hardware, and a wide array of scientific instruments. Among the mission’s most notable payloads were two upgraded extravehicular activity (EVA) spacesuits. These new-generation suits boast improved durability, with a lifespan of four years and the capacity to support up to 20 spacewalks. These enhancements will enable taikonauts aboard Tiangong to carry out longer, more frequent, and safer operations outside the station.

In addition to the EVA suits, Tianzhou-9 brought a new core-muscle training device designed to help astronauts maintain muscle strength and mitigate the effects of extended weightlessness. Physical health in microgravity is a key concern for long-duration missions, and this device will contribute to China’s research into space physiology and crew health maintenance.

One of the most innovative scientific payloads onboard was a brain organoid-on-a-chip experiment. This sophisticated biological test aims to replicate human brain cells under microgravity conditions, examining the functionality of the blood–brain barrier in space. The research has the potential to provide valuable insights into the cognitive and neurological risks encountered by astronauts during extended space missions. It could contribute to the development of future countermeasures.

Also included in the cargo were nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, materials science experiments, and tools for aerospace medicine studies. The spacecraft also carried consumables such as food, water, and oxygen for the crew of Shenzhou-20 currently residing on the space station, as well as propellant to help Tiangong maintain its orbit and perform attitude adjustments. These supplies are essential for maintaining the habitability of Tiangong, which has been operational since its core module was launched in April 2021.

A Critical Link in the Tiangong Ecosystem

The Tiangong space station, currently in its application and development stage, marks a major advancement in China’s space ambitions. Unlike earlier testbed stations, Tiangong is a modular, permanent platform designed to compete with the International Space Station (ISS). It consists of the Tianhe core module and the Wentian and Mengtian experimental modules, enabling a broad spectrum of scientific research, technological tests, and crew activities.

As Tiangong matures into a fully operational orbital laboratory, the Tianzhou series of cargo spacecraft provides the logistical backbone to maintain its operation smoothly. With a payload capacity exceeding 6.5 tonnes and autonomous docking capabilities, Tianzhou spacecraft are comparable to other international resupply systems, such as SpaceX’s Dragon, Russia’s Progress, and Northrop Grumman’s Cygnus vehicles.

Each Tianzhou launch not only replenishes life-support essentials but also delivers a suite of scientific instruments to support China’s growing space research program. By regularly rotating crews and resupplying the station, CMSA ensures that Tiangong remains a vibrant hub for microgravity research, life sciences, materials development, and advanced technologies.

China’s Broader Space Strategy and Global Ambitions

China’s space program operates independently of other leading spacefaring nations, primarily due to geopolitical constraints, including U.S. legislation that restricts NASA’s collaboration with China. Consequently, Tiangong exemplifies China’s independence in space technology. From launch vehicles to spacecraft and ground infrastructure, all elements of the Tiangong program are developed domestically, demonstrating China’s engineering prowess.

China’s consistent success in human spaceflight and station operations reflects its long-term ambitions to become a dominant spacefaring nation. The Tianzhou-9 mission represents merely the latest in a series of accomplishments that include landing rovers on the Moon and Mars, launching the world’s largest radio telescope, and sending up a relay satellite to support future lunar missions.

Furthermore, the operation of China’s space station offers invaluable expertise for subsequent deep-space expeditions. The competencies acquired in spacecraft docking, extended human habitation, robotic management, and onboard medical research constitute essential foundational skills for prospective missions to the Moon or Mars.

Global Context

The Tianzhou-9 mission comes at a time when global interest in space exploration is surging. The ISS, a collaborative effort involving the U.S., Russia, Europe, Japan, and Canada, is nearing the end of its operational life, with planned decommissioning in 2030. Tiangong, by contrast, is a relatively new platform, positioning China as a key player in the next era of human spaceflight. While Tiangong is smaller than the ISS, its capabilities are robust, and its scientific output is growing.

China has expressed a willingness to cooperate internationally regarding the Tiangong space station, extending invitations to other nations to conduct experiments aboard the facility. This initiative may facilitate the development of partnerships with countries across Asia, Africa, and other regions, particularly those without established space programs. Such collaborations possess the potential to redefine the geopolitics of outer space, fostering new alliances and avenues for scientific advancement.

Future Prospects

In 2025, China is expected to launch Shenzhou-21, which will carry a new crew to the space station. The incoming team will relieve the current taikonauts and proceed with the ongoing scientific research, while also preparing for future enhancements to the station’s infrastructure.

Beyond Tiangong, China is also formulating plans to deploy astronauts on the Moon before 2030. The Tianzhou and Shenzhou missions will function as essential training platforms for life support systems, crew rotations, and logistical supply chains necessary for such sustained undertakings.

Conclusion

The launch of Tianzhou-9 symbolises more than merely another cargo delivery; it exemplifies China’s rapidly progressing capabilities in space logistics, engineering expertise, and increasing leadership in orbital sciences. With each successive mission, China advances towards realising its vision of establishing itself as a preeminent entity in human spaceflight and space-based research. As the Tiangong space station develops into an international platform for scientific and technological endeavours, global attention remains focused. Tianzhou-9 has not only provided the necessary hardware and experiments to support this future but has also reaffirmed China’s preparedness to spearhead the forthcoming era of space exploration.

Please Add Value to the write-up with your views on the subject.

Link to the article on the website:-

Big Milestone For China’s Space Program! Beijing Masters Logistics For Tiangong’s Cosmic Future With Tianzhou-9 Resupply Mission

For regular updates, please register your email here:-

Subscribe

References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

Pics Courtesy: Internet

Disclaimer:

References:–

China Manned Space Agency. (2025, July 15). Tianzhou-9 docks with Tiangong space station. Xinhua News.

Howell, E. (2025, July 15). China launches Tianzhou 9 cargo spacecraft to Tiangong space station. Space.com. Retrieved from https://www.space.com

Global Times. (2025, July 15). Tianzhou-9 brings upgraded EVA suits, brain organoid experiments to Tiangong. Retrieved from https://www.globaltimes.cn

Jones, A. (2025, July 16). Tianzhou-9 Bolsters China’s Tiangong Space Station with Critical Supplies and Experiments. The Planetary Society Blog.

People’s Daily. (2025, July 15). China Advances Its Space Program with the Launch of Tianzhou-9 from Wenchang—People’s Daily Online.

CCTV News. (2025, July 15). Tianzhou-9 Successfully Launched, Strengthening Tiangong’s Capabilities. China Central Television.

China National Space Administration (CNSA). (2025). Mission overview: Tianzhou and Tiangong programs. Retrieved from http://www.cnsa.gov.cn

CGTN. (2025, July 15). Tianzhou-9 launch completes rapid autonomous docking with Tiangong. CGTN News.

Xinhua News Agency. (2025, July 15). China Sends Tianzhou-9 Cargo Spacecraft to Supply Tiangong Space Station. Xinhua Net.

SpaceNews. (2025, July 15). China’s Tianzhou-9 Cargo Mission Supports Tiangong with Supplies for Shenzhou-20 and Shenzhou-21 Crews. SpaceNews.

July 12, 2025

701: A NEW CHALLENGE: CHINA’S NON-NUCLEAR HYDROGEN BOMB

My Article was published on “The EurasianTimes” website on 12 Jul 25.

In April 2025, Chinese researchers made a significant breakthrough in military technology. They successfully tested a non-nuclear hydrogen-based explosive device, a creation of the 705 Research Institute of the China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC). This innovative weapon, which uses magnesium hydride to produce a fireball several times longer than a comparable TNT explosion, is a departure from traditional hydrogen bombs that rely on nuclear fusion. Instead, it employs a chemical reaction to release hydrogen gas, igniting a sustained inferno without radioactive fallout. Initially designed for clean energy applications, this technology’s pivot to military use has sparked global intrigue and concern. Detailed in a paper in the Journal of Projectiles, Rockets, Missiles and Guidance and reported by the South China Morning Post, this development signals a potential shift in modern warfare, raising questions about its strategic, ethical, and geopolitical implications.

The Technology Enabling the Device

At the heart of the device is magnesium hydride (MgH₂). This compound has been extensively studied for its potential in hydrogen storage due to its ability to release hydrogen gas upon heating. The explosive exploits this property by using a controlled chemical reaction to generate and ignite hydrogen gas, creating a fireball that exceeds 1,000°C in temperature and lasts over two seconds. This is 15 times longer than the thermal output of a traditional TNT-based explosive of comparable size. What distinguishes this explosive is its non-nuclear composition. Unlike thermonuclear hydrogen bombs that use nuclear fusion to generate devastating power and radiation, this device relies purely on chemical reactions. This enables intense thermal effects without the political and environmental consequences associated with nuclear weapons.

The sustained heat, lasting over two seconds compared to TNT’s fleeting 0.12-second flash, allows for extensive thermal damage across vast areas. According to CSSC scientist Wang Xuefeng, who led the research, “Hydrogen gas explosions ignite with minimal ignition energy, have a broad explosion range, and unleash flames that race outward rapidly while spreading widely.” This combination enables precise control over blast intensity, making the device suitable for both large-area thermal strikes and targeted attacks on high-value assets, such as communication hubs or fuel depots.

A significant barrier to the practical use of magnesium hydride has been its production. The material’s high reactivity poses risks of spontaneous combustion when exposed to air, historically limiting output to mere grams per day in controlled laboratory settings. However, a breakthrough in 2025 has changed this landscape. A new facility in Shaanxi province, operated by the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, now produces 150 tonnes of magnesium hydride annually using a “one-pot synthesis” method. This safer, cost-effective process has overcome previous manufacturing challenges, enabling large-scale production and paving the way for both military and civilian applications. The ability to produce magnesium hydride at such volumes underscores China’s commitment to integrating this technology into its defence strategy.

Strategic Implications of the Device

The CSSC’s 705 Research Institute, renowned for its expertise in underwater weapons such as torpedoes and unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs), has positioned this device as a versatile tool for modern warfare. Its compact size and lightweight nature make it ideal for integration into various platforms, including drones, precision-guided munitions, and naval systems. Potential applications include the following:-

- Precision Thermal Strikes. The device’s prolonged fireball can incinerate logistics hubs, radar installations, or infantry formations, offering tactical flexibility in asymmetric conflicts. Its heat, capable of melting metals, could disable critical infrastructure without the widespread destruction of nuclear weapons.

- Area Denial. The sustained thermal effects could create temporary “no-go zones,” denying the enemy access to key routes, disrupting supply lines and communication. It may also serve as a deterrent due to its psychological impact.

- Naval Warfare. Integrated into torpedoes or UUVs, the device could deliver devastating heat-based damage to enemy vessels, potentially melting hulls or igniting fuel stores without nuclear fallout. This makes it a strategic asset for maritime dominance.

The device’s non-nuclear nature is a key advantage, as it avoids violating international nuclear treaties while delivering effects comparable to thermobaric weapons, which disperse fuel-air mixtures to create prolonged explosions. Compared to Russia’s TOS-1A “Buratino” rocket launcher, which relies on bulky delivery systems, the Chinese device’s compact design allows deployment via smaller platforms, enhancing its versatility.

Analytical Perspective.

Geopolitical Context. The timing of this test, amid escalating tensions with Taiwan, has amplified global concerns. China’s military modernisation and increased military spending reflect its focus on advanced technologies to assert regional dominance. The South China Morning Post suggests the device could be used in a Taiwan conflict to target underground defences or urban strongholds, drawing parallels to the U.S. Massive Ordnance Air Blast (MOAB) weapon’s psychological and tactical impact. By delivering sustained heat to fortified positions, the device could disrupt command centers or incapacitate personnel, potentially shifting the balance in urban warfare scenarios.

Dual Use Approach. The development of the device also aligns with China’s broader strategy of integrating clean energy technologies into its military framework. Magnesium hydride’s potential as a fuel source for submarines or long-endurance drones suggests a dual-use approach, blending civilian innovation with defence applications.

Legal Aspects. The emergence of this technology also presents new challenges for international arms control and humanitarian law. Because the explosive is not nuclear, it may fall outside existing treaties, such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) or the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). This legal grey area could allow countries to develop and deploy such weapons without violating current international norms.

Ethical and Humanitarian Concerns. While the device avoids nuclear fallout, its similarity to thermobaric weapons raises ethical and legal questions. Thermobaric weapons, known for their devastating effects in urban environments, have faced criticism for causing indiscriminate harm, including severe internal injuries and oxygen depletion. The magnesium hydride device’s ability to produce prolonged, high-temperature fireballs could exacerbate these concerns, particularly if deployed in densely populated areas. Analysts warn that its use in conflicts could spark debates over battlefield ethics, especially given its potential to “fry electronics, melt armour, or torch an area for denial purposes.”

Global Reactions. The international community has reacted with apprehension. The U.S., already bolstering Taiwan’s defences, may view this as a challenge to its regional influence, potentially accelerating the arms race in the Indo-Pacific. Meanwhile, China’s ability to scale up magnesium hydride production suggests that this technology could soon transition from experimental to operational, potentially reshaping military strategies worldwide.

Conclusion

China’s April 2025 test of a magnesium hydride-based explosive marks a critical juncture in military technology. Offering intense, sustained thermal effects without the liabilities of nuclear fallout, this new class of weaponry could redefine how nations conduct precision strikes and deter adversaries. While developed from clean energy research, its adaptation for warfare reveals the dual-use nature of modern scientific advancement. As this technology matures and potentially spreads, it may usher in a new era of warfare, one where energy science meets battlefield strategy, and where the line between conventional and unconventional weapons becomes increasingly blurred.

Please Add Value to the write-up with your views on the subject.

Link to the article on the website:-

Not Nuclear Or TNT, China’s H-Bomb May Spark Global Firestorm; Here’s Why It’s Much More Destructive

For regular updates, please register your email here:-

Subscribe

References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

Pics Courtesy: Internet

Disclaimer:

References:-

Wang, Xuefeng, et al. “Development and Testing of a Non-Nuclear Hydrogen-Based Explosive Device Using Magnesium Hydride.” Journal of Projectiles, Rockets, Missiles and Guidance, vol. 45, no. 2, April 2025, pp. 123-130.

“China Tests New Hydrogen-Based Explosive with Prolonged Thermal Effects.” South China Morning Post, 15 April 2025,

China State Shipbuilding Corporation. “Annual Report on Research and Development: 705 Research Institute.” CSSC, 2025.

Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics. “Breakthrough in Magnesium Hydride Production for Energy and Defence Applications.” Chinese Academy of Sciences, 10 March 2025,

“China’s Defence Budget Rises to USD 249 Billion in 2025.” Global Times, 5 March 2025, www.globaltimes.cn/page/202503/1304567.shtml.

Journal of Projectiles, Rockets, Missiles and Guidance. (2025). Performance analysis of a hydrogen-based thermal explosive using magnesium hydride.
Li, H., & Zhao, Q. (2024). Dual-use technologies and military innovation in China. Journal of Strategic Studies, 38(2), 98–117.

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). (2021). Incendiary weapons and international humanitarian law.

United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA). (2020). Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and implications for non-nuclear weapon innovations.