My article was published in the July 2025 edition of the “Life of Soldier” journal.
The nature of armed conflicts has undergone profound transformations over the past century, reshaping the challenges faced by peace operations and the application of International Humanitarian Law (IHL). From the trench warfare of World War I to the hybrid and non-state conflicts of the 21st century, the evolving character of warfare has introduced complexities that strain traditional frameworks for peacekeeping, conflict resolution, and humanitarian protection. There is a need to explore the shifting dynamics of modern conflicts, their implications for peace operations, and the pressures they exert on IHL while highlighting the need for adaptive strategies to ensure effective responses to contemporary crises.
The Evolution of Conflict
Historically, conflicts were predominantly interstate wars, characterised by clear battle lines, state armies, and defined objectives, such as territorial conquest or ideological dominance. The two World Wars exemplified this model, with nations mobilising resources and populations for large-scale, conventional warfare. However, since the mid-20th century, the character of conflicts has shifted dramatically. Intrastate conflicts, insurgencies, and asymmetric warfare have become more prevalent, driven by ethnic, religious, or political grievances, often exacerbated by economic inequality or resource scarcity.
The rise of non-state actors, terrorist organisations, militias, and criminal networks has further complicated the landscape. Groups like ISIS, Boko Haram, or the Wagner Group operate outside traditional state structures, employing tactics that blur the lines between combatants and civilians. These actors often exploit ungoverned spaces, leveraging technology like drones or encrypted communications to amplify their impact. Additionally, hybrid warfare, combining conventional military operations with cyber attacks, disinformation campaigns, and economic coercion, has emerged as a hallmark of modern conflicts.
Urbanisation has also transformed conflict zones. By 2050, an estimated 68% of the global population will live in cities, making urban areas the epicenters of violence. Urban warfare, as witnessed in Aleppo, Mosul, or Gaza, involves complex environments where combatants and civilians coexist, increasing the risk of collateral damage and complicating military operations. Climate change further exacerbates these dynamics, fuelling resource-based conflicts over water, arable land, or energy, particularly in vulnerable regions like the Sahel or South Asia.
Challenges to Peace Operations
Peace operations, encompassing peacekeeping, peace building, and conflict prevention, have struggled to adapt to these evolving conflict dynamics. Traditionally, United Nations (UN) peacekeeping missions were designed for interstate conflicts, with mandates to monitor ceasefires or separate belligerents. However, modern missions, such as those in Mali (MINUSMA) or the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUSCO), operate in environments without apparent peace, facing protracted insurgencies, fragmented armed groups, and weak state institutions.
Mandate and Capability Gaps. Contemporary peace operations often receive ambitious mandates, such as protecting civilians, supporting state-building, or countering terrorism, that exceed available resources and capabilities. For instance, the UN mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) has been tasked with protecting civilians amid ongoing violence. Yet, it lacks the mobility, intelligence, or firepower to deter well-armed militias effectively. The mismatch between mandates and means undermines mission credibility and exposes peacekeepers to attacks, as seen in the rising number of fatalities in Mali and the Central African Republic.
Peace Keeping to Peace Enforcement. Moreover, the principle of impartiality, a cornerstone of traditional peacekeeping, is increasingly untenable in asymmetric conflicts. When peacekeepers confront non-state actors who reject negotiated settlements, maintaining neutrality can appear complicit, alienating local populations or governments. Robust mandates, such as those authorising “all necessary means” to protect civilians, have pushed peacekeeping toward peace enforcement, blurring the line between neutral intervention and active combat.
Protection of Civilians. Protecting civilians in modern conflicts is a central challenge. Non-state actors frequently target civilians to sow fear or destabilise communities, as seen in Boko Haram’s attacks on schools or ISIS’s mass executions. Urban warfare compounds this issue, with densely populated areas becoming battlegrounds where distinguishing combatants from non-combatants is nearly impossible. Often underequipped and outnumbered, peacekeepers struggle to fulfil protection mandates, leading to criticism and loss of trust among local populations.
Weapons Proliferation. The proliferation of small arms and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) further complicates civilian protection. In Mali, IED attacks on peacekeepers and civilians have surged, with over 200 UN personnel killed since 2013. These tactics, combined with the use of human shields, erode the ability of peace operations to secure safe zones or deliver humanitarian aid.
Coordination and Local Engagement. Effective peace operations require coordination among diverse actors, UN agencies, and regional organisations like the African Union (AU), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and local stakeholders. Yet, fragmented mandates and competing priorities often hinder collaboration. For example, in Somalia, the AU’s AMISOM mission has operated alongside UN support operations and bilateral counterterrorism efforts, leading to overlapping roles and inefficiencies.
Winning Trust. Engaging local communities is equally critical but challenging. Cultural misunderstandings, perceptions of foreign interference, or reliance on unrepresentative local elites can undermine mission legitimacy. In Haiti, the UN’s MINUSTAH mission (2004–2017) faced backlash after a cholera outbreak linked to peacekeepers, highlighting how operational missteps can erode trust.
Pressures on International Humanitarian Law. IHL, rooted in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols, seeks to regulate armed conflicts by protecting civilians, prisoners, and wounded combatants while limiting the means and methods of warfare. However, the changing character of conflicts has exposed gaps in IHL’s application and enforcement, raising questions about its relevance in modern warfare.
Distinction and Proportionality. The principle of distinction requiring parties to differentiate between combatants and civilians is increasingly difficult to uphold. Non-state actors often operate without uniforms, blending into civilian populations or using civilian infrastructure for military purposes. In Gaza, Hamas’s use of tunnels beneath hospitals or schools has sparked debates over whether such sites lose their protected status under IHL. Similarly, state actors employing precision-guided munitions, as seen in U.S. drone strikes, face scrutiny over proportionality when civilian casualties occur despite targeted intentions.
Emerging Technologies. New technologies, drones, autonomous weapons, and cyber attacks pose unprecedented challenges to IHL. Drones, used extensively in Yemen and Ukraine, enable precise strikes but also facilitate extrajudicial killings or errors when intelligence is faulty. Autonomous weapons, still in development, raise questions about accountability: who is responsible when a machine decides to kill? IHL’s existing frameworks, designed for human decision-making, struggle to address these scenarios.
Cyber warfare. Cyber warfare further complicates IHL’s application. Attacks on critical infrastructure, like the 2020 cyber strike on Iran’s nuclear facilities, can disrupt civilian life without physical destruction, challenging traditional notions of “attack” under IHL. The absence of explicit norms for cyber operations leaves a regulatory void, risking escalation and civilian harm.
Accountability and Enforcement. Enforcing IHL remains a persistent challenge. The International Criminal Court (ICC) and ad hoc tribunals have prosecuted war crimes, but their reach is limited. Powerful states often shield themselves or allies from scrutiny, while non-state actors are challenging to prosecute due to their amorphous structures. For example, despite allegations of war crimes in Syria, including chemical weapons use, accountability has been stymied by geopolitical vetoes in the UN Security Council. The politicisation of humanitarian access exacerbates impunity. In Yemen, both Houthi rebels and the Saudi-led coalition have obstructed aid deliveries, violating IHL obligations to facilitate humanitarian relief. Such actions highlight the gap between legal norms and battlefield realities, undermining IHL’s credibility.
Adapting to the Future
Addressing the challenges posed by modern conflicts requires innovative approaches to peace operations and IHL. For peace operations, this means aligning mandates with realistic capabilities, investing in training and technology, and prioritising local engagement. Regional organisations, like the AU or ASEAN, can play a more significant role, leveraging their contextual knowledge to complement UN efforts. Partnerships with private sector actors, such as tech firms, could enhance intelligence-gathering or counter disinformation, though ethical risks must be managed.
For IHL, adaptation involves updating legal frameworks to address emerging technologies and hybrid threats. An international consensus on regulating autonomous weapons and cyber attacks is urgently needed, potentially through new protocols or treaties. Strengthening accountability mechanisms, such as hybrid tribunals or expanded ICC jurisdiction, could deter violations, while public advocacy and education can reinforce IHL’s normative power.
The need for prevention crosses both domains. Early warning systems, conflict-sensitive development, and climate adaptation can mitigate the root causes of violence, reducing the burden on peace operations and IHL. Though strained by great-power rivalries, multilateral cooperation remains essential to address global threats like terrorism or resource conflicts.
Conclusion
The changing character of conflicts, marked by non-state actors, urban warfare, hybrid tactics, and technological advancements, has profoundly challenged peace operations and International Humanitarian Law. Peacekeeping missions grapple with unrealistic mandates, civilian protection failures, and coordination gaps, while IHL struggles to regulate new forms of warfare and ensure accountability. Yet, these challenges also present opportunities for reform. By aligning resources with goals, embracing innovation, and fostering global cooperation, the international community can strengthen its ability to manage conflicts and uphold humanitarian principles. In an era of uncertainty, the resilience of peace operations and IHL will depend on their capacity to evolve alongside the conflicts they seek to address, ensuring that the pursuit of peace and justice remains a cornerstone of global order.
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