Category: warfare

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586: COMBAT DRONES: GLOBAL OVERVIEW

 

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Combat drones, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have revolutionised modern warfare by providing advanced capabilities for surveillance, intelligence gathering, and precision strikes. These drones are utilised by militaries worldwide, ranging from the United States MQ-9 Reaper to China’s CH-4 and Russia’s Forpost. Their ability to operate in hostile environments without risking human lives has made them invaluable in counterterrorism, border patrol, and intelligence operations. Drones are equipped with advanced sensors, cameras, and weapons systems, enabling real-time data transmission and the ability to carry out airstrikes accurately. The global proliferation of combat drones has led to their adoption by a growing number of nations, each leveraging them for strategic advantages in conventional and asymmetric conflicts. As their technology evolves, drones become more autonomous, with artificial intelligence and machine learning improving operational efficiency. However, the widespread use of combat drones raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding civilian casualties, accountability, and the potential for misuse in geopolitical conflicts. The future of combat drones will likely see further advancements in stealth, range, and lethality, making them an integral part of military strategies worldwide and sparking ongoing debates about their regulation and impact on international law.

 

USA

 

MQ-9 Reaper. The MQ-9 Reaper, a long-endurance, high-altitude UAV, stands out in the U.S. Air Force’s arsenal. Its ability to carry precision-guided munitions such as Hellfire missiles and GBU-12 bombs makes it a formidable force in strike missions. The Reaper’s extensive use in counterterrorism operations and ISR roles, an impressive range of over 1,800 km, and flight endurance of 27 hours solidify its position as a key asset in modern warfare.

 

RQ-170 Sentinel. The RQ-170 Sentinel is a stealth reconnaissance UAV used by the U.S. Air Force. Its flying-wing design is optimised for stealth and high-altitude operations. The Sentinel is known for its involvement in high-profile missions, including surveillance operations over Iran and Pakistan.

 

MQ-1C Gray Eagle. The MQ-1C Gray Eagle is an upgraded variant of the Predator drone used by the U.S. Army. It provides extended endurance, advanced ISR capabilities, and the ability to deploy Hellfire missiles and precision bombs. With an endurance of 25 hours and real-time data relay, the Gray Eagle plays a vital role in counterinsurgency and tactical battlefield support.

 

XQ-58A Valkyrie. The XQ-58A Valkyrie is a low-cost, stealthy unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) designed to operate alongside manned fighter jets in a “loyal wingman” role. Developed by Kratos for the U.S. Air Force, offers autonomous operations, long-range capabilities, and potential for strike missions with minimal radar detectability.

 

RQ-4 Global Hawk. The RQ-4 Global Hawk is a high-altitude, long-endurance surveillance drone used primarily for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions. Operated by the U.S. Air Force and NATO, it provides real-time battlefield awareness. Some variants, such as the MQ-4C Triton, feature limited weapon-carrying capabilities for defensive purposes.

 

MQ-25 Stingray. The MQ-25 Stingray is a carrier-based drone designed to provide aerial refuelling for U.S. Navy aircraft, extending their range and operational endurance. Built by Boeing, it also has secondary intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities, with potential for future combat roles such as electronic warfare or precision strikes.

 

RQ-180.  The RQ-180 is a secretive, high-altitude stealth reconnaissance drone believed to provide deep-penetration ISR capabilities in contested airspace. Developed for the U.S. Air Force, it likely features advanced radar evasion technologies and long endurance. Rumours suggest it could possess limited strike capabilities, complementing traditional reconnaissance missions with potential offensive roles.

 

Switchblade (USA). The Switchblade is a compact, loitering munition developed by AeroVironment, designed for rapid deployment in tactical operations. It provides precision strike capabilities with real-time intelligence and can be launched from a portable platform. Switchblade is ideal for anti-armour and high-value target missions, offering flexibility in diverse combat scenarios.

 

China

 

Wing Loong II. The Wing Loong II is a combat UAV developed by China for long-endurance missions. Similar to the American MQ-9 Reaper, it carries a variety of air-to-ground weapons, including precision-guided bombs and missiles. It has a maximum endurance of 20 hours and an operational range exceeding 1,000 km. The Wing Loong series has been widely exported to countries in Africa and the Middle East.

 

CH-5 Rainbow. The CH-5 is a heavy-class combat drone developed by China, resembling the MQ-9 Reaper in design and functionality. It can carry up to 16 missiles and has an endurance of 36 hours, making it suitable for long-duration strike and reconnaissance missions. Its advanced sensors and electronic warfare capabilities allow it to conduct surveillance and combat operations efficiently.

 

GJ-11 Sharp Sword. The GJ-11, known as Sharp Sword, is a stealth UCAV designed for high-end combat operations. Its flying-wing design optimises it for low observability and precision strikes. It is expected to play a significant role in China’s future airpower, particularly in contested environments with anti-access/area-denial threats.

 

WZ-7 Soaring Dragon. The WZ-7 Soaring Dragon is a high-altitude surveillance drone developed by China. It is designed for reconnaissance and intelligence gathering in contested airspaces. With its stealth features, it is capable of long-endurance missions and may also have potential for combat roles, making it a versatile asset for modern military operations.

 

FH-97. The FH-97 is a loyal wingman drone designed to work alongside manned fighter jets in China’s air force. It offers advanced autonomy and long-range capabilities, assisting in tasks like surveillance, strike missions, and electronic warfare, thereby enhancing the capabilities of its human counterparts in both offensive and defensive operations.

 

CH-7. The CH-7 is a Chinese stealth unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) designed for high-altitude, long-endurance missions. With radar-evading technology, it is built for deep penetration strikes in heavily defended airspace. Its capabilities include precision attacks and reconnaissance, positioning it as a key component in China’s modernised military strategy.

 

Russia

 

S-70 Okhotnik-B (Russia). The S-70 Okhotnik-B, or “Hunter-B,” is a stealth UCAV designed to operate alongside Russia’s Su-57 fighter jets. It features advanced stealth capabilities, a flying-wing design, and the ability to carry a significant payload of precision-guided munitions. With a range of over 6,000 km and autonomous combat capabilities, the Okhotnik-B represents Russia’s push toward integrating AI into warfare.

 

Orion (Russia). The Orion UAV is a MALE combat drone developed by Russia with capabilities similar to those of the MQ-1 Predator. It can last 24 hours and carry guided munitions such as KAB-20 bombs and Vikhr missiles. The Orion has been deployed in Syria and Ukraine for reconnaissance and precision strikes, showcasing Russia’s advancements in drone warfare.

 

KUB-BLA. The KUB-BLA is a loitering munition (suicide drone) developed by Russia. Designed to deliver precision strikes, it flies autonomously to target specific assets and detonates on impact. It is a low-cost, effective weapon for disabling high-value targets, particularly in conflict zones with limited anti-aircraft defences.

 

Lancet.  The Lancet is a lightweight loitering munition used in the Ukraine conflict, providing precise, targeted strikes. It is designed to fly autonomously, locate and identify targets, and detonate on impact. Its compact size, ease of deployment, and versatility make it an effective weapon against stationary and moving targets.

 

Altius-U. The Altius-U is a long-range, unmanned aerial system (UAS) designed for intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR), and strike missions. Developed by Russia, it features advanced avionics and can carry a range of payloads, including precision-guided munitions. Its capabilities make it a valuable asset for deep reconnaissance and tactical airstrikes.

 

ZALA Lancet (Russia). The ZALA Lancet is a Russian tactical loitering munition designed for precision strikes against high-value targets. It is equipped with advanced sensors for target acquisition and can carry warheads to destroy enemy assets. The Lancet is used for anti-armour, anti-aircraft, and anti-personnel missions, effectively supporting battlefield operations.

 

Israel

 

Harop (Israel). The Harop is a loitering munition UAV designed to hunt and destroy radar installations and high-value targets autonomously. It has an operational range of 1,000 km and carries an explosive payload to engage targets with high precision. Widely used by Israel and other nations, the Harop is a key asset in electronic warfare and counter-air defence roles.

 

Hermes 900 (Israel). The Hermes 900 is a MALE UAV used primarily for ISR and strike operations. It boasts a long endurance of up to 36 hours and can carry precision-guided munitions. Several countries use the drone for border surveillance, counterterrorism, and maritime patrol missions. Its modular design allows for different payloads, including SIGINT and EO/IR sensors.

 

Heron TP (Eitan). The Heron TP, also known as Eitan, is a strategic, long-endurance UAV developed by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI). It boasts significant strike capabilities with a range of over 1,000 km and can carry a variety of payloads, including precision-guided munitions. This UAV is primarily used for surveillance and targeted strikes.

 

Harpy. The Harpy is an advanced anti-radar loitering munition developed by IAI. It is designed to seek and destroy radar systems by autonomously detecting, targeting, and attacking them. The Harpy’s loitering capability allows it to remain in an area, waiting for radar signals to attack, making it a critical tool for suppressing enemy air defences.

 

IAI Ghost. The IAI Ghost is a small, tactical UAV designed for special operations and precision strikes. Its lightweight and compact design allows for easy deployment in covert missions. It can carry out targeted strikes on enemy assets while offering real-time intelligence and surveillance, which is ideal for intelligence collection and rapid response scenarios.

 

Turkey

 

Bayraktar TB2 (Turkey). The Bayraktar TB2 is a MALE (Medium-Altitude, Long-Endurance) drone known for its success in recent conflicts in Libya, Syria, and Ukraine. It is equipped with laser-guided smart munitions and advanced surveillance capabilities. With an endurance of 27 hours and an operational range of 150 km, the TB2 provides cost-effective strike and reconnaissance solutions. Its impact on asymmetric warfare has made it popular with several countries.

 

Akinci (Turkey). Turkey’s advanced HALE (High-Altitude, Long-Endurance) UAV, the Akinci, is a strategic asset with its sophisticated avionics and AI-driven capabilities. Its ability to carry a variety of smart munitions, including air-to-ground missiles and standoff weapons, combined with an endurance of 24 hours and high-altitude operation, underscores its strategic role in Turkey’s defence doctrine.

 

Kızılelma (Turkey). The Kızılelma is a jet-powered stealth UCAV designed for high-speed strike missions. As Turkey’s first combat drone with air-to-air capabilities, it integrates AI-assisted targeting and electronic warfare capabilities. The Kızılelma is expected to play a significant role in future air combat operations, complementing Turkey’s manned fighter fleet.

 

Anka-S. Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI) developed the Anka-S, an advanced UAV with additional strike capabilities, for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions. It can operate at high altitudes and extended durations and is equipped with advanced sensors and precision-guided munitions, making it practical for surveillance and targeted strikes.

 

Iran

 

Shahed-136 (Iran). The Shahed-136 is a loitering munition drone, often referred to as a ‘suicide drone,’ extensively used in asymmetric warfare. With its range of over 2,500 km and an explosive warhead designed to target critical infrastructure and military assets, the Shahed-136 has been deployed in conflicts in the West Asia and Ukraine, showcasing Iran’s growing drone capabilities.

 

Shahed-129. The Shahed-129 is an Iranian-developed UAV designed for ISR and strike missions, widely used in the West Asia. With a range of over 2,000 km, it can carry precision-guided munitions and is primarily deployed for reconnaissance, surveillance, and targeted strikes, supporting military operations in conflict zones.

 

Mohajer-6. Iran developed the Mohajer-6, a multi-role UAV capable of ISR and combat operations. Equipped with guided munitions, it can conduct precise airstrikes while gathering real-time intelligence. Its versatility makes it effective for various military tasks, including surveillance and targeted operations in diverse environments.

 

Karrar. The Karrar is a jet-powered combat UAV developed by Iran. It is designed for high-speed, long-range strike missions. It features advanced avionics and can carry a variety of weapons, making it suitable for precision airstrikes and tactical operations. Its jet propulsion allows for rapid deployment and high-performance capabilities.

 

India

 

Rustom-II (India). Rustom-II, known as TAPAS-BH-201, is India’s indigenous MALE UAV designed for surveillance and strike missions. It features an endurance of 24 hours and a payload capacity of 350 kg, including advanced surveillance systems and guided munitions. Developed by DRDO, the drone aims to reduce India’s dependence on imported UAVs and enhance its reconnaissance capabilities.

 

Ghatak (UCAV project). The Ghatak is an Indian stealth UCAV (Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle) currently under development by DRDO. It is designed for high-precision strike capabilities, features advanced stealth technology, and has low radar visibility. It is intended for deep penetration missions and aims to enhance India’s strategic capabilities in unmanned warfare.

 

Archer-NG. The Archer-NG is an advanced armed variant of the Rustom UAV, currently under development by India’s DRDO. It is designed to carry a variety of payloads, including precision-guided munitions, to conduct airstrikes. The Archer-NG enhances India’s tactical capabilities, providing a versatile surveillance, reconnaissance, and offensive operations platform.

 

European Union (Various Countries)

 

Taranis (UK). BAE Systems developed the Taranis, a stealth combat UAV designed for deep penetration strike missions. It features advanced stealth, high-speed capabilities, and autonomous flight operations. As a demonstrator for future UCAV technology, the Taranis highlights the UK’s focus on developing next-generation unmanned systems.

 

Eurodrone (Europe). The Eurodrone is a collaborative project by Germany, France, Italy, and Spain to develop a MALE UAV with European autonomy. It is intended for ISR and precision strike roles with a payload capacity supporting various sensors and munitions. The Eurodrone aims to reduce Europe’s reliance on foreign drone technology.

 

Neuron. The Neuron is a French/European stealth UCAV prototype developed by Dassault Aviation. It features advanced stealth technology for precision strike missions to minimise radar detection and enhance survivability in hostile environments. The Neuron serves as a testbed for future unmanned combat systems, showcasing European capabilities in unmanned aerial warfare.

 

South Korea

 

KUS-FS. The KUS-FS is a South Korean MALE UAV designed for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) and strike missions. Its advanced avionics and long endurance allow it to carry precision-guided munitions, effectively supporting military operations. Its multi-role capability makes it a versatile asset for both surveillance and combat.

 

KUS-VH. The KUS-VH is a South Korean loyal wingman concept currently under development. It is designed to operate alongside manned aircraft. It can perform autonomous missions, supporting reconnaissance, strike, and electronic warfare. The KUS-VH aims to enhance the capabilities of piloted platforms by acting as a cooperative and agile aerial teammate.

 

Pakistan

 

Burraq. The Burraq is an Indigenous UCAV developed by Pakistan and modelled after Chinese UAV designs. It is primarily used for surveillance and strike missions and can carry precision-guided munitions. The Burraq provides Pakistan with a versatile platform for targeting enemy assets and conducting reconnaissance in hostile environments.

 

Shahpar-II. The Shahpar-II is a Pakistani ISR and combat drone designed for intelligence gathering and precision strike missions. Equipped with advanced sensors and guided munitions, it can conduct surveillance while engaging enemy targets with high accuracy. The Shahpar-II offers enhanced operational flexibility, serving both reconnaissance and offensive roles in military operations.

 

Other Notable Drones

 

MQ-28 Ghost Bat (Australia). The MQ-28 Ghost Bat is an Australian loyal wingman drone developed for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). It is designed to operate autonomously alongside manned aircraft, enhancing their surveillance, combat, and electronic warfare capabilities. The Ghost Bat provides flexible, cost-effective support in complex air operations.

 

CH-4 (Iraq/Jordan/Algeria imports). The CH-4 is a Chinese-built MALE UCAV widely exported to Iraq, Jordan, and Algeria. It is designed for long-endurance ISR missions and precision strikes. Equipped with advanced sensors and guided munitions, the CH-4 provides an effective platform for surveillance and targeted airstrikes in varied operational environments.

 

Warmate (Poland). The Warmate is a Polish-made tactical loitering munition designed for ISR and precision strike missions. It is lightweight and can be deployed in combat, including anti-armour operations. The Warmate can carry explosives to engage enemy targets, offering a cost-effective and versatile solution for tactical warfare.

 

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584: CONTEMPORARY WARS THROUGH THE LENS OF GALTUNG’S THEORY

 

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My Article published on the Life of Soldier website on 17 Jan 25

 

In the 21st century, war and conflict have evolved significantly. From interstate wars to protracted civil conflicts, the causes and consequences of contemporary violence are deeply complex. Johan Galtung, a peace and conflict studies pioneer, provides a theoretical framework uniquely suited to analyse these modern wars. His conflict theory, encompassing the conflict triangle, structural and cultural violence, and distinctions between negative and positive peace, offers hope for a comprehensive understanding of conflicts and pathways to resolution. This article explores how Galtung’s theory can be applied to analyse and address contemporary wars, focusing on cases such as the Russia-Ukraine war and the Israel-Hamas conflict.

 

Galtung’s Conflict Theory

 

Johan Galtung’s Conflict Theory is foundational peace and conflict studies framework. Galtung, a Norwegian sociologist and the discipline’s founder, developed theories to understand conflict dynamics and pathways to sustainable peace. His most influential contributions include the conflict triangle, the concepts of structural violence, and distinctions between negative peace and positive peace.

 

 

Galtung’s Conflict Triangle. Galtung describes conflict as having three interrelated components, often visualised as a triangle. The first component, the Attitudes (A), includes the perceptions, emotions, and assumptions that parties hold about each other, usually shaped by prejudice, fear, or hatred. The second Behaviour (B) is the actions taken by parties, such as violence, protests, or negotiations. The third segment is the Contradictions (C), i.e. the underlying incompatibilities or structural issues, such as resource disputes or unequal power distributions. For sustainable peace, all three corners of the triangle must be addressed. Resolving the structural root causes (contradictions) without addressing hostile attitudes or violent behaviour might lead to a fragile and temporary resolution.

 

Types of Violence. Galtung expanded the concept of violence beyond direct physical harm. He categorised violence as direct, structural, and cultural. Direct violence is observable physical or verbal aggression, such as war, assault, or terrorism. Structural violence is indirect harm embedded in societal structures, such as poverty, discrimination, and inequality, which systematically disadvantage certain groups. Lastly, cultural violence is the result of cultural norms and values that justify or legitimise violence, such as ideologies, religions, or traditions that perpetuate oppression. Structural and cultural violence often underpin direct violence. Addressing these forms of violence is essential for creating lasting peace.

 

Negative Peace vis-a-vis Positive Peace. Negative peace is the absence of direct violence (e.g., a ceasefire or truce). While it stops immediate harm, underlying issues may remain unresolved. On the other hand, positive peace is a holistic state where structural and cultural violence is also eliminated, leading to a just and equitable society. Peace-building efforts should aim for positive peace by transforming societal systems and relationships rather than ending immediate hostilities. Achieving positive peace not only stops violence but also addresses the root causes of conflict, creating a more stable and just society.

 

Conflict Transformation. Unlike conflict resolution (which seeks to end conflict) or conflict management (which seeks to control it), Galtung emphasises conflict transformation, which involves addressing the root causes and creating conditions for long-term peace and harmony. At the heart of Galtung’s theory, this approach is crucial for understanding and resolving contemporary wars, enlightening us about the importance of addressing the underlying issues and keeping us informed about the complexities of peace and conflict studies.

 

Multilateral organisations like the UN can use Galtung’s theory to design peace processes and post-conflict rebuilding efforts. Analysing Inequalities can help identify systemic injustices that contribute to conflicts. Education and advocacy can provide a lens to critique cultural norms and challenge violent structures.

 

Understanding Russia-Ukraine War through Galton’s Conflict Theory

 

Analysing the Russia-Ukraine war through Johan Galtung’s Conflict Theory offers a structured way to understand the root causes, dynamics, and potential pathways to resolution. We can dissect this complex conflict by using Galtung’s conflict triangle, concepts of violence, and distinctions between negative and positive peace.

 

Galtung’s Conflict Triangle. The three components—contradictions, attitudes, and behaviour—highlight the interplay between the conflict’s structural roots and immediate manifestations.

 

    • Contradictions (Structural Causes). Historically and geopolitically, Ukraine’s position as a buffer zone between Russia and the West (NATO/EU) has created long-standing tensions. Russia perceives NATO expansion as a threat to its security, particularly with Ukraine’s aspirations for NATO/EU membership. Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 and the conflict in Donbas (eastern Ukraine) reflect disputes over territorial sovereignty and self-determination. Control over natural resources, pipelines, and strategic ports, particularly in Crimea and the Black Sea, adds to the structural causes.

 

    • Attitudes (Perceptions and Narratives). The Russian perspective is a historical closeness to Ukraine influenced and shaped by shared cultural, linguistic, and religious ties. Its nationalist rhetoric frames Ukraine’s Western alignment as a betrayal and existential threat. The Ukrainian perspective points to a strong drive for independence and self-determination, with resistance to Russian domination. It sees growing alignment with Western values and institutions as a pathway to sovereignty and development.

 

    • Behaviour (Observable Actions). Observable actions include Russia’s military invasion of Ukraine and Ukraine’s resistance through armed defence. They also include international diplomacy, appeals for Western support, sanctions on Russia, military aid to Ukraine, and diplomatic efforts to de-escalate the conflict.

 

Types of Violence. Galtung’s framework identifies direct, structural, and cultural violence in the war.

 

    • Direct Violence. This includes military aggression, missile strikes, sieges, and combat operations resulting in civilian and military casualties. It resulted in the displacement of millions of Ukrainians due to attacks on civilian areas.

 

    • Structural Violence. Economic disparity between regions (e.g., eastern Ukraine vs. the rest of the country) exacerbates local grievances. Russian control of occupied areas imposes governance that marginalises Ukrainian identity and rights. Western sanctions against Russia, while aimed at reducing aggression, create hardships for ordinary Russians, particularly marginalised groups.

 

    • Cultural Violence. Both sides use propaganda and rhetoric in the form of nationalist narratives that justify violence or delegitimise the opponent’s position. Competing narratives about Ukraine’s identity and sovereignty deepen the divisions.

 

Negative Peace vs. Positive Peace. Negative Peace (Ceasefire/Absence of war), i.e. a cessation of direct violence, might be achieved through ceasefires or peace agreements, but without addressing underlying causes, hostilities could reignite (e.g., post-2015 Minsk Agreements). Positive peace (Structural Transformation) would be achieved by acknowledging Ukraine’s sovereignty while addressing security concerns for Russia. An inclusive framework would have to be created to address ethnic and linguistic diversity in Ukraine (e.g., the rights of Russian-speaking minorities). Trust must be rebuilt through cultural and educational exchanges to counter divisive narratives. Institutional reforms would ensure economic and political stability in Ukraine, reducing vulnerabilities to external manipulation.

 

Conflict Transformation Strategies. Galtung’s emphasis on conflict transformation rather than resolution suggests a need for holistic approaches.

 

    • Multi-Level Dialogue. Engaging Russia, Ukraine, NATO, and other stakeholders in genuine negotiations prioritising long-term stability over short-term gains. Including civil society and regional actors in peace-building efforts.

 

    • Rebuilding Trust and Cooperation. Addressing Russian fears of NATO expansion with security guarantees. Establishing international frameworks for shared governance of contested areas like Crimea or Donbas.

 

    • Economic and Social Reconstruction. International support is needed to rebuild Ukraine post-war and ensure equitable development. Addressing energy dependency and economic grievances that fuel tensions.

 

    • Countering Cultural Violence. Challenging nationalist and antagonistic narratives through media, education, and cultural initiatives. Promoting shared historical understanding and reconciliation efforts.

 

Through Galtung’s lens, the Russia-Ukraine war is not just about military aggression but a deep-rooted conflict shaped by structural inequalities, hostile attitudes, and geopolitical contradictions. Achieving sustainable peace requires moving beyond negative peace (ceasefire) to positive peace (addressing root causes). This would involve transforming systems of inequality, reframing narratives, and fostering cooperative international relations.

 

Understanding Israel-Hamas War through Galtung’s Conflict Theory

 

Understanding the Israel-Hamas conflict through Johan Galtung’s Conflict Theory allows one to analyse the underlying causes, ongoing dynamics, and potential paths toward resolution. This protracted and deeply rooted conflict can be delved into by applying Galtung’s conflict triangle, concepts of violence, and distinctions between negative and positive peace.

 

Galtung’s Conflict Triangle. Its three components—contradictions, attitudes, and behaviours—offer a framework for examining this conflict.

 

    • Contradictions (Structural Causes). The conflict over land, particularly Israel’s occupation of Palestinian territories (West Bank, Gaza), is a core issue. The blockade on Gaza and disputes over East Jerusalem exacerbate tensions. Differing claims to the same land are based on historical, religious, and political narratives. Palestinians in Gaza face significant restrictions under the Israeli blockade, including limited access to resources, employment, and healthcare. Ongoing settlement expansions in the West Bank undermine the viability of a two-state solution. Divisions within Palestinian leadership (e.g., Hamas in Gaza and the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank) hinder cohesive representation in negotiations.

 

    • Attitudes (Perceptions and Narratives). Israeli perspective highlights the fear of existential threats, given Hamas’s stated aim of opposing Israel’s existence and history of attacks on civilians. A perception that security measures, including the blockade and military actions, are necessary for survival. Palestinian perspective includes resentment over dispossession, systemic inequality, and perceived denial of their national and human rights—narratives of resistance against occupation and framing Israeli actions as colonial and oppressive. Decades of violence, asymmetric power dynamics, and failed negotiations have entrenched mistrust and hostility on both sides.

 

    • Behaviour (Observable Actions). This includes Israeli military operations, airstrikes, and ground incursions in Gaza. Hamas rocket attacks on Israeli cities and other forms of armed resistance. Cycles of escalation and de-escalation are often influenced by external actors (e.g., the U.S., Egypt, and Iran).

 

Types of Violence. Galtung’s classification of violence highlights the multifaceted nature of the conflict.

 

    • Direct Violence. Examples of direct violence are physical attacks and bombings by both sides, resulting in civilian and combatant casualties. Indiscriminate rocket fire from Gaza targeting Israeli cities. Military operations destroyed in Gaza and loss of life.

 

    • Structural Violence. The blockade on Gaza restricts freedom of movement, trade, and access to essential services, contributing to widespread poverty and humanitarian crises. Settlement expansions in the West Bank create conditions of displacement and inequality—unequal access to legal rights, resources, and political representation for Palestinians.

 

    • Cultural Violence. Religious and nationalist narratives that justify actions on both sides. For example, it claims that divine rights grant exclusive control over the land—narratives framing the “other” as inherently violent or illegitimate. Educational materials and media perpetuate stereotypes and deepen divisions.

 

Negative Peace vs. Positive Peace.  Negative Peace (Absence of Direct Violence), i.e. temporary ceasefires or truces, has been achieved through external mediation but failed to address root causes. Examples include the 2021 ceasefire and previous agreements mediated by Egypt or Qatar.  Whereas Positive Peace (Structural and Cultural Transformation) would involve addressing underlying issues, such as Lifting the blockade on Gaza, enabling economic and social development, halting settlement expansion, ensuring equitable access to resources and establishing mechanisms for coexistence, justice, and reconciliation.

 

Conflict Transformation Strategies. Galtung’s emphasis on conflict transformation suggests a need for systemic and relational changes.

 

    • Addressing Structural Causes: Internationally mediated solutions to establish a fair and sustainable framework for coexistence, such as a two-state or one-state solution; economic initiatives to improve living conditions in Gaza and the West Bank.

 

    • Rebuilding Trust and Addressing Narratives. Promoting dialogue initiatives between Israeli and Palestinian communities. Countering hate speech and fostering narratives highlighting shared humanity and potential for coexistence.

 

    • Inclusive Negotiations. Engaging all stakeholders, including Hamas, despite its controversial designation as a terrorist organisation by many countries, to ensure meaningful representation. External Mediators: Leveraging the influence of regional powers (e.g., Egypt, Turkey) and international actors (e.g., the U.S., UN) to facilitate equitable negotiations.

 

Through Galtung’s lens, the Israel-Hamas conflict highlights a deeply rooted struggle involving structural inequalities, hostile attitudes, and cyclical violence. Sustainable peace requires addressing direct, structural, and cultural violence and transforming the systems and narratives perpetuating the conflict. Moving toward positive peace would involve creating conditions for justice, equity, and mutual recognition.

 

Conclusion

 

Johan Galtung’s conflict theory provides a valuable framework for analysing and addressing contemporary wars. By examining contradictions, attitudes, and behaviours and addressing direct, structural, and cultural violence, pathways to sustainable peace can be imagined. While challenges remain significant, a focus on positive peace can transform cycles of violence into opportunities for reconciliation and coexistence. These contemporary war studies illustrate the urgency and relevance of applying Galtung’s insights to modern conflicts, offering hope for a more peaceful future.

 

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Contemporary Wars Through The Lens Of Galtung’s Theory

 

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References and credits

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References:-

  1. Galtung, Johan, and Dietrich Fischer. Constructive Conflict: From Escalation to Resolution. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.
  1. Galtung, Johan. Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization. Oslo: PRIO, 1996.
  1. Barash, David P., and Charles P. Webel. Peace and Conflict Studies. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2018.
  1. Ramsbotham, Oliver, Tom Woodhouse, and Hugh Miall. Contemporary Conflict Resolution: The Prevention, Management and Transformation of Deadly Conflicts. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016.
  1. Menon, Rajan. Conflict in Ukraine: The Unwinding of the Post-Cold War Order. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015.
  1. International Crisis Group. Russia and Ukraine: Preventing Further Escalation. Crisis Group Europe Report No. 260, 2022.
  1. Khalidi, Rashid. The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2020.
  1. Human Rights Watch. Israel-Palestine: Events of 2022. Human Rights Watch Annual Report, 2023.
  1. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). Global Conflict Trends and Analysis. Accessed December 2024. https://www.sipri.org.

Disclaimer:

Information and data included in the blog are for educational & non-commercial purposes only and have been carefully adapted, excerpted, or edited from reliable and accurate sources. All copyrighted material belongs to respective owners and is provided only for wider dissemination.

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583:IMPORTANT BATTLES OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT: SIGNIFICANCE AND LESSONS

 

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My Article published on the IIRF Website on 16 Jan 25.

 

The Indian subcontinent, a cradle of civilisations and a region of immense geopolitical importance has been shaped by monumental battles that have left an indelible mark on its history. These conflicts were driven by ambition, resistance, ideology, and external invasions, shaping the region’s political, cultural, and social landscape. Each war, from the ancient battles of the Mauryan Empire to the more modern confrontations during the colonial and post-independence periods, offers a unique lens through which to understand broader lessons on governance, diplomacy, strategy, and societal resilience.

 

Significant Battles

 

Battle of the Ten Kings (Rigvedic Period).  This was a significant event in the early history of the Indian subcontinent. Approximately in the 14th century BCE (speculative), between King Sudas of the Bharatas and a coalition of ten tribes. King Sudas was victorious and consolidated the Bharatas’ dominance. This battle, one of the earliest recorded in Indian history, highlights the tribal conflicts of the Rigvedic period, a time of significant cultural and social development. It marked the emergence of a powerful polity under the Bharatas, laying the groundwork for later Vedic civilisation. The battle highlighted the importance of leadership and strategy in uniting disparate groups and was early evidence of resource disputes and territorial expansion shaping societies.

 

The Battle of Hydaspes (326 BCE). The Battle between Alexander the Great and King Porus of the Punjab region. Alexander’s strategic brilliance and deception allowed him to cross the swollen Hydaspes River and defeat Porus despite the latter’s formidable forces. It marked the easternmost extent of Alexander’s conquests, showcasing the limits of even the most ambitious campaigns. Alexander showed respect for a valiant opponent by reinstating Porus as a regional ruler. It fostered long-term stability in the region and introduced the Indian subcontinent to Hellenistic culture, influencing art, architecture, and governance. The battle proved that adaptability and innovation in military strategy can overcome even the most daunting odds.

 

The Kalinga War. This war,/   dated 261 BCE, was one of the bloodiest conflicts in Indian history. It was fought between Mauryan Emperor Ashoka and the state of Kalinga. Ashoka won but with immense loss of life and suffering. The Kalinga War was not just a pivotal event in Indian history but a transformative one. The sheer scale of bloodshed led Ashoka to embrace Buddhism and propagate non-violence and dharma, influencing Indian and global history. The war transformed Indian history by ushering in an era of peace and governance based on moral principles. The conflict underscored the futility and human cost of war, the role of leadership in ideological transformation, and the potential for conflict to lead to moral and spiritual awakening.

 

The Battle of Tarain (1191 and 1192). These battles between Prithviraj Chauhan and Muhammad of Ghor were pivotal in shaping the political landscape of northern India. While the first battle was a victory for Prithviraj, the second saw Muhammad of Ghor prevail, leading to the establishment of Muslim rule in north India and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. It represented a shift in power dynamics and introduced new cultural and administrative practices. The lessons revealed the consequences of underestimating an adversary, the importance of unity among Indian kingdoms against foreign invasions, and military strategy and adaptation as keys to sustained success.

 

The Battles of Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761) are milestones in Indian history, each marking a significant power shift and a turning point in Indian history.  In the first battle (1526), Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, establishing the Mughal Empire under Babur. In the second battle (1556), Akbar’s regent, Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu, reaffirming Mughal dominance under Akbar. In the third Battle (1761), Ahmad Shah Durrani defeated the Marathas, marking their decline and the resurgence of regional kingdoms. These battles provide valuable lessons on the strategic importance of alliances, the role of technological superiority (e.g., Babur’s use of cannons), and the catastrophic impact of disunity among Indian powers. They also showcase the changing dynamics of warfare, including the use of gunpowder, artillery, and disciplined infantry.

 

The Battle of Plassey (1757). This battle marked the beginning of British colonial rule in India.  This war, fought between the British East India Company under Robert Clive and the Nawab of Bengal (Siraj-ud-Daulah), was a turning point in Indian history. The British victory, aided by Mir Jafar’s betrayal, established their dominance in Bengal and laid the foundation for their expansion across India.  The East India Company’s control over Bengal became the cornerstone of its expansion across India. The battle initiated a period of economic exploitation and political subjugation of India under British rule. It highlighted the dangers of internal betrayal and lack of loyalty, the significance of financial and military planning in modern warfare, and how colonial powers exploited local rivalries to establish dominance.

 

The Battle of Buxar (1764). British won this conflict between the British East India Company and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, Nawab of Awadh, and Nawab of Bengal. This battle consolidated British power in India, granting them the Diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. It marked the beginning of the systematic exploitation of Indian resources.  The battle revealed that unified resistance is essential against a common adversary, and control over resources and the economy is as crucial as military strength. Overdependence on external forces can weaken sovereignty.

 

Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799). The four Anglo-Mysore Wars, which occurred between the Kingdom of Mysore under leaders like Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan and the British East India Company, were pivotal in the colonisation of India. Tipu Sultan’s resistance, modernisation efforts, and alliances with foreign powers are noteworthy. These included the Battle of Pollilur (1780) between Tipu Sultan’s defeated British forces and the siege of Srirangapatna (1799) when the British won with the death of Tipu Sultan. The Anglo-Mysore Wars were among the fiercest resistances to British expansion. Tipu Sultan, known as the “Tiger of Mysore,” became a symbol of defiance against colonial powers. Tipu’s defiance became a symbol of anti-colonial struggle, inspiring future generations. Tipu Sultan’s focus on economic reforms and military modernisation highlights the need for a strong domestic base to resist external aggression. The failure to secure lasting alliances with France and other European powers underscores the importance of reliable international partnerships in regional conflicts. The wars also underscored the value of technological innovation, such as the Mysorean rockets, and the challenges of sustaining resistance without broad-based alliances.

 

The First War of Indian Independence (1857). The Revolt of 1857. Often termed the First War of Independence, it was a widespread uprising against British rule sparked by grievances ranging from economic exploitation to cultural and religious insensitivity. It involved Indian soldiers and rebels against the British East India Company. The British suppressed the rebellion. Although it failed, it marked the beginning of the end for the East India Company and led to direct Crown rule over India. The revolt highlighted the potential strength of a united front across different regions, religions, and classes, even though lack of coordination undermined its success.

 

Battles of the India-Pakistan Conflicts. The partition of India in 1947 led to a series of wars between India and Pakistan, primarily over the contested region of Kashmir. These included the first Kashmir war (1947–1948), the second Kashmir war (1965), and the 1971 liberation of Bangladesh. Among these, the 1971 war stands out for leading to the creation of Bangladesh. These battles fought in the modern era shaped the geopolitics of South Asia and influenced international relations. The enduring conflict over Kashmir and the frequent wars reveal the long-term difficulties of unresolved partitions. The 1971 war, triggered by the genocide in East Pakistan, underscores the ethical imperatives of intervention in the face of humanitarian crises. India’s coordination of military, diplomatic, and intelligence efforts in 1971 serves as a case study in comprehensive strategy.

 

Kargil War. The Kargil War fought between India and Pakistan in the challenging terrain of the Himalayas, showcased the importance of surveillance, intelligence, and the role of international diplomacy in modern conflicts. The use of air power and precision weaponry highlighted the evolving nature of warfare. The media extensively covered war in South Asia for the first time, shaping public opinion and international perceptions. India’s ability to garner international support by diplomatically isolating Pakistan was a significant factor in resolving the conflict.

 

Broader Lessons from Indian Battles

 

The battles of the Indian subcontinent are more than just historical events; they offer valuable lessons on unity, strategy, and the importance of learning from history to shape a better future. By understanding these conflicts, modern societies can strive to resolve disputes through dialogue and avoid repeating past mistakes.

 

Unity is Strength. A recurring theme in Indian history is the detrimental impact of internal divisions. The subcontinent’s history illustrates how unity can amplify strength while fragmentation often leads to vulnerability. From the Battle of Tarain to the British conquests, the lack of unity among Indian rulers frequently facilitated foreign domination.

 

The Cost of Betrayal. Many battles were lost due to betrayal, such as Mir Jafar’s role in the Battle of Plassey. Loyalty and trust within ranks are critical in any conflict.

 

Adaptability in Warfare. Introducing new technologies, from gunpowder to modern surveillance systems, has been decisive in many wars.  Using innovative strategies and technologies, such as Babur’s cannons or Tipu Sultan’s rockets, underscores the importance of adapting to evolving military techniques. The ability to adapt and innovate remains crucial.

 

Economic Control as a Tool of Power. Battles like Plassey and Buxar show how economic dominance can be as powerful as military victory. Controlling resources often dictates the outcome of conflicts.

 

Ethics and Leadership. From Ashoka’s remorse to Tipu Sultan’s resistance, leaders’ moral compass has often shaped the course and memory of wars.

 

Cultural Resilience. Despite numerous invasions and conflicts, the Indian subcontinent has retained its cultural identity, showcasing the resilience of its societies.

 

Conclusion

The wars of the Indian subcontinent are not just tales of conquests and defeats. They reflect the interplay of ambition, strategy, and cultural evolution. While they have often been sources of immense suffering, they also offer enduring lessons in leadership, unity, and the pursuit of peace. A key lesson from Indian battles is the importance of international diplomacy alongside military strategy. Forming alliances and negotiating effectively on the global stage can often be as crucial as battlefield tactics in determining the outcome of conflicts. The human cost of prolonged conflict is a sobering reality that cannot be overlooked. Beyond the strategic and political implications, wars inflict untold suffering on individuals and communities, underscoring the need for peaceful resolution of disputes. As India and its neighbours navigate the complexities of the 21st century, these historical lessons remain as relevant as ever, offering insights into building a future that values peace, cooperation, and sustainable development. By studying these historical conflicts, we can better understand the forces that have shaped the subcontinent and gain insights into how to address contemporary challenges.

 

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References and credits

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