Category: Technology

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553: INDIA-RUSSIA LIKELY DEAL ABOUT VORONEZH RADAR SYSTEM

 

Pic Courtesy Net

 

Sputnik News sought inputs on the topic.

 

Recent Media Reports (08 Dec 24)

 

India is set to finalise a landmark USD 4 billion defence agreement with Russia to acquire an advanced long-range early warning radar system.

 

Discussions between Indian defence officials and a Russian delegation led by Almaz-Antey, the radar system manufacturer, have progressed rapidly.

 

Recent high-level talks in New Delhi and Bengaluru have emphasised the importance of involving Indian industry in the project, aligning with the government’s “Make in India” policy.

 

Around 60 per cent of the system’s components are expected to be manufactured domestically, a move that will promote self-reliance while strengthening Indo-Russian defence ties.

 

The radar system (likely a Voronezh-M radar) will likely be installed in Chitradurga in Karnataka, a strategically important location with advanced defence and aerospace facilities.

 

The Voronezh-M is an over-the-horizon (OTH) early warning radar system. Over-the-horizon (OTH) radar functions by using the ionosphere to refract radio waves, allowing detection of targets beyond the line of sight.

 

The site is expected to provide optimal coverage and integrate smoothly into India’s defence infrastructure, enhancing the country’s ability to monitor threats in real time.

 

According to claims, over 50 Indian partners, including startups, will manufacture at least 60 per cent of the system. The project is expected to generate substantial employment across the country.

 

The project is being handled by LRDE (Electronics and Radar Development Establishment), a part of India’s DRDO (Defence Research and Development Organisation).

 

Voronezh Radar System.

 

The Voronezh radar system is a series of advanced, long-range radar systems developed by Russia as part of its early warning network to detect ballistic missile launches and track objects in space. It is a key component of Russia’s missile attack warning system. The system is known for its high operational efficiency, modular construction, and relatively rapid deployment compared to earlier generations. The Voronezh radar system can detect and track ballistic missile launches and stealth aircraft and provide situational awareness of space objects.

 

Types of Voronezh Radars. The Voronezh radars come in several variants, including Voronezh-M, Voronezh-DM, and Voronezh-CM, each tailored for specific detection roles or improved performance.

 

    • Voronezh-M (VHF band). It is optimised for detecting objects at long ranges but with lower resolution. The radar is optimised to provide initial warning of medium and long-range ballistic missiles.
    • Voronezh-DM (UHF band). It offers better resolution and tracking accuracy for smaller targets.
    • Voronezh-SM (L-band). It has enhanced precision tracking and clutter rejection capabilities.
    • Voronezh-VP. The “VP” version combines both VHF and UHF for enhanced capabilities.

 

Data Fusion. The different Voronezh radars can work in unison as part of an integrated Missile Attack Early Warning System to generate a comprehensive radar picture of potential missile threats and space activity. Each Voronezh radar operates independently, monitoring its assigned sector. The data collected—such as target trajectories, speeds, and classifications—are transmitted to a central processing hub. The central system fuses this information with data from other radars, satellites, and sensors to create a unified, real-time radar picture of the monitored region.

 

Modular Design. The radar’s modular construction allows for faster assembly and deployment. It is reportedly cost-effective, reducing construction and operational costs.

 

Range and Coverage. The Voronezh radars can reportedly detect targets at distances of up to 6,000 kilometers. They can monitor objects at high altitudes, making them suitable for tracking ballistic missiles and satellites.

 

Several Voronezh radars are operational across Russia, forming a network to ensure coverage against potential missile threats. These radars are integrated into Russia’s broader missile early warning and air defence systems, alongside satellites and other ground-based radars. Their primary role is to provide warning of ballistic missile launches, contributing to strategic defence and deterrence.

 

Why is the Voronezh radar system essential for India, and what benefits will India gain from acquiring it?

 

Given its role in missile detection, early warning, and space surveillance, the Voronezh radar system could be strategically significant for India. If India were to acquire the Voronezh radar system from Russia, it would gain several strategic, operational, and geopolitical benefits. These advantages align with India’s defence modernisation and security requirements.

 

Enhanced Early Warning Capability. The Voronezh radar’s ability to detect objects up to 6,000 km would significantly enhance India’s early-warning capabilities for incoming ballistic missiles, aircraft, or space-based threats. With increasing regional missile threats from adversaries like Pakistan and China, an advanced early warning system is crucial for maintaining strategic stability.

 

Augmenting India’s Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) Program. India has been developing its indigenous BMD systems, including the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) and Advanced Air Defence (AAD) interceptors. A radar system like Voronezh could integrate seamlessly into India’s layered defence architecture, improving tracking precision and target acquisition.

 

Multi-Mission Utility. The Voronezh system is versatile and can monitor ballistic missiles, aircraft, and space-based objects. This multi-role capability aligns with India’s need for cost-effective, comprehensive defence solutions.

 

Dual-Use Capability. The radar’s ability to monitor terrestrial and space-based threats fits well with India’s civil and military objectives, including its burgeoning space program under ISRO.

 

Space Surveillance. The Voronezh radar can track space objects and debris, enhancing India’s situational awareness in outer space. This is particularly relevant as India expands its space program and navigates other nations’ potential militarisation of space.

 

Enhanced Decision-Making. Early detection improves command-and-control structures, allowing policymakers to make informed decisions during a crisis.

 

Technology Advancement. Access to high-end Russian technology would complement India’s indigenous radar development and foster domestic R&D through technology transfer agreements.

 

Strategic Deterrence. Possessing a system like the Voronezh radar enhances a country’s deterrence posture. Adversaries are less likely to initiate missile strikes if they know such strikes will be detected early and countered effectively.

 

Monitoring China. With its long-range, Voronezh radars would enable India to closely watch Chinese missile and air activities, including those in the Tibet and Xinjiang regions.

 

Regional Geopolitical Competition. In South Asia, India faces growing security challenges, including the potential deployment of advanced missile systems by neighbouring countries. An advanced radar like Voronezh would enable India to maintain technological parity and address evolving threats.

 

Potential Challenges

 

Integration Issues. Adapting Russian systems to work seamlessly with India’s existing platforms and protocols may require significant effort.

 

Technology Transfer. Given its strategic importance, Russia might be reluctant to share the complete technology, necessitating joint development or customisation agreements.

 

Cost. Advanced systems like Voronezh come with substantial acquisition and maintenance expenses.

 

Potential Diplomatic Issues. Such a deal might affect India’s relationships with the U.S. and other Western allies due to the sensitive nature of military technologies.

 

Acquiring the Voronezh radar system would represent a strategic leap for India’s defence infrastructure, reinforcing its position as a significant regional power and improving its preparedness against modern threats.

 

Conclusion. India desperately needed a ballistic missile launch early warning and counter stealth capability. Given the strategic importance of early-warning and tracking systems in modern warfare, a system like Voronezh could be a game-changer for India’s defence strategy. The deal will strengthen India’s security and bolster the nation’s defence manufacturing sector, creating new opportunities for economic growth and industrial development. The acquisition will position India alongside a select group of countries capable of monitoring missile launches and aerial activities over vast distances.

 

Your valuable comments are most welcome.

 

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References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

 

Disclaimer:

Information and data included in the blog are for educational & non-commercial purposes only and have been carefully adapted, excerpted, or edited from reliable and accurate sources. All copyrighted material belongs to respective owners and is provided only for wider dissemination.

 

 

 

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552: FORMATION FLYING IN SPACE

 

Pic Courtesy Net

 

My Article published on the EurasianTimes Website on 08 Dec 24

 

On 05 Dec 24, India’s PSLV-C59 successfully launched the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Proba-3 mission. This marked a significant milestone in international space collaboration. The Proba-3 mission consists of two satellites, the Coronagraph Spacecraft (CSC) and the Occulter Spacecraft (OSC), deployed into a highly elliptical orbit. Proba-3 is designed to demonstrate precision formation flying, with the two satellites maintaining a separation of about 150 meters with millimeter accuracy. Together, they will create an artificial solar eclipse, a unique event in space science, to study the Sun’s corona for extended periods—far exceeding the brief duration of natural eclipses. This is expected to advance understanding of phenomena such as the Sun’s corona’s high temperatures and the acceleration of the solar wind. The mission was managed by NewSpace India Limited (NSIL), with the launch conducted from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota. It demonstrates the growing role of India’s space program in facilitating advanced scientific research.

 

PSLV-C59 Rocket

 

The PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle) is one of India’s most reliable and versatile rockets, developed by ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation). It can launch satellites into polar and geostationary orbits and is known for its cost-efficiency and successful track record.

 

PSLV is a four-stage rocket, with the first three stages powered by solid and liquid propulsion systems and the fourth stage a liquid engine. It is equipped with a strap-on motor that increases its lift capacity. The PSLV can carry a variety of payloads, from small satellites to heavier, larger payloads, and has been used for missions ranging from Earth observation to interplanetary exploration.

 

PSLV has been ISRO’s workhorse. It is responsible for successfully launching many important missions, such as the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) and the Chandrayaan-2 mission to the Moon. Over the years, it has gained a reputation for its high reliability.

 

PSLV-C59 again showcased ISRO’s impressive capabilities, contributing to India’s space ambitions and international collaborations like ESA’s Proba-3 mission. The PSLV-C59 launch carried the Proba-3 satellites into a Sun-synchronous orbit, which is ideal for Earth observation satellites as it ensures consistent lighting conditions for imaging. The satellites were launched from India’s Sriharikota Spaceport (ISRO’s primary launch site), further highlighting India’s significant role in global space missions.

 

Proba-3

 

Proba-3 is the first mission designed to demonstrate precision formation flying in space. Formation flying is a technique where multiple spacecraft maintain a specific relative position to each other while flying in precise, coordinated orbits. In the case of Proba-3, the two spacecraft will need to stay in formation at around 150 meters. This high precision is achieved through advanced onboard sensors and algorithms that allow them to maintain the required relative positions. Both satellites maintain their formation using advanced control systems and GPS receivers. They will perform autonomous manoeuvres based on real-time sensor data, making the mission’s operation more efficient and reliable.

 

The mission’s goal, which is of utmost importance, is to observe the Sun’s corona using a coronagraph, a device that blocks out the Sun’s bright surface (photosphere) to reveal the much fainter outer layers of the Sun. This is crucial for studying solar, wind, and space weather phenomena, which can affect Earth’s communications, satellites, and even power grids. In addition to exploring the Sun, Proba-3 will provide valuable data on space weather dynamics, which is essential for protecting satellite systems from solar radiation and space debris. It will also help improve technologies for future missions that rely on formation flying, such as space telescopes or planetary exploration missions.

 

Formation Flying in Space

 

Formation Types. There are two types of formations. In the Fixed Formation, the spacecraft maintain a fixed distance and orientation relative to each other, as in the case of Proba-3’s dual spacecraft for solar observation. In Dynamic Formation, the spacecraft may change their relative positions, such as in missions where spacecraft need to move between different regions of space.

 

Technologies and Techniques. Formation flying involves multiple spacecraft that fly in precise, coordinated orbits and maintain a specific relative position to each other. Achieving this high precision requires advanced technologies and techniques.

 

    • Onboard Sensors. Formation flying spacecraft typically use a combination of star trackers, gyroscopes, and GPS to measure their relative position. These sensors provide highly accurate data about their orientation and location in space.

 

    • Inter-spacecraft Communication. The spacecraft in formation exchange information about their position and velocity, which helps each spacecraft adjust its trajectory to stay in formation.

 

    • Autonomous Control Systems. Spacecraft are often equipped with autonomous guidance systems, which allow them to make real-time adjustments based on data from onboard sensors. This reduces the need for ground-based intervention, making the formation’s operation more efficient.

 

    • Manoeuvre Algorithms. Specialised algorithms calculate the required adjustments to keep the spacecraft in precise formation using sensor data and communication systems. These algorithms consider factors like gravitational forces, drag, and orbital perturbations.

 

    • Orbit Determination. For formations to remain stable, the spacecraft must be placed in carefully calculated orbits. These orbits are often designed to minimise fuel consumption while maintaining relative positions. Minor, controlled burns of the spacecraft’s thrusters are used to maintain formation over time.

 

Applications of Formation Flying

 

Space Telescopes. Formation flying enables the creation of large, virtual telescopes. Multiple satellites flying in formation can work together to create a larger aperture, effectively improving the resolution and sensitivity of observations. ESA’s LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) mission is an example of using formation flying for gravitational wave detection. Three spacecraft will maintain precise formation to measure tiny changes in distances between them caused by gravitational waves.

 

Earth Observation. Formation flying can be used for Earth monitoring. Multiple satellites fly in formation to observe the same area from different angles or across different wavelengths. This can improve data acquisition for environmental monitoring, disaster response, and scientific studies.

 

Space Weather Monitoring. Missions like Proba-3 that study the Sun and its effects on space weather benefit from formation flying because it allows precise control over the position of the instruments. This capability can lead to better observations of phenomena such as the solar wind and solar flares, helping to improve space weather forecasting.

 

Planetary and Deep Space Missions. Formation flying could be essential for missions to distant planets, moons, or asteroids. Multiple spacecraft in formation could study the same target from different perspectives or work together to analyse a single object more comprehensively.

 

ISRO: A Glimpse into the Future

 

Chandrayaan-3. After the success of Chandrayaan-1 and the recent Chandrayaan-2 mission, ISRO is preparing for Chandrayaan-3, aiming for a soft landing on the Moon. The mission will demonstrate ISRO’s capability to execute a precise lunar landing and continue studying the Moon’s surface.

 

Gaganyaan. ISRO’s first human spaceflight mission, Gaganyaan, is under development. It will carry Indian astronauts (called Gagannauts) into space aboard a crewed spacecraft. The mission is part of India’s ambition to become a major player in human space exploration, and it will lay the groundwork for future deep-space missions.

 

Aditya-L1. Aditya-L1 is ISRO’s first mission to study the Sun. It will be placed in the L1 Lagrangian point, where it can continuously observe the Sun without interruptions from Earth’s shadow. The mission will help study solar activities and space weather.

 

Mangalyaan-2. After the success of the Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan-1), ISRO plans to launch Mangalyaan-2, which could be an orbiter or a lander/rover mission to Mars. This will build on ISRO’s expertise in interplanetary exploration.

 

NISAR (NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar). This joint mission between NASA and ISRO will launch a radar imaging satellite to study Earth’s surface. The satellite will provide high-resolution Earth imagery to help with disaster management, agriculture, and climate monitoring. The radar data will also help detect changes in Earth’s surface, such as those caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.

 

Space-Based Solar Power. Looking further ahead, ISRO has expressed interest in harnessing space-based solar power. This would involve satellites with solar panels collecting solar energy in space and beaming it to Earth as microwaves or laser beams.

 

Formation flying is a fascinating and rapidly developing field in space exploration. Its ability to create more powerful observational platforms and facilitate coordinated scientific missions will be increasingly important in future space endeavours. ISRO, with its proven expertise and ambitious missions, is sure to remain a key player in the growing global space community.

 

Your valuable comments are most welcome.

 

Link to the article on the website:

https://www.eurasiantimes.com/isro-launches-esas-proba-3-mission-to-study-suns/

 

 

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References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

References:

  1. European Space Agency (ESA). “Proba-3: A World First in Formation Flying.”
  1. Wertz, J. R., Everett, D. F., & Puschell, J. J. (Eds.). Space Mission Engineering: The New SMAD. Microcosm Press, 2011.
  1. Leonard, C. L., Hollister, W. M., & Jacobson, D. H. (1985). “Formation-Keeping for a Pair of Satellites in a Circular Orbit.” Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 8(3), 235-242.
  1. Wertz, J. R. (1999). “Autonomous Spacecraft Navigation Using Formation Flying.” Acta Astronautica, 45(4-9), 505-512.
  1. NewSpace India Limited (NSIL). “PSLV-C59/Proba-3 Mission.” A detailed account of the Proba-3 mission objectives and its demonstration of formation flying is available on NSIL’s website.
  1. Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Future Missions Overview. Available at ISRO’s official website.
  1. NewSpace India Limited (NSIL). Advancing India’s Space Ventures. Accessible on NSIL’s page.
  1. Singh, Rajeshwari P. (2024). “India’s Space Odyssey: ISRO’s Vision for 2040.” Space Policy Journal.
  1. The Economic Times. “ISRO’s Ambitious Gaganyaan Mission and Beyond.” A report.
  1. Press Information Bureau (PIB). India’s Space Roadmap: Highlights from ISRO. Available at PIB’s official website.
  1. European Space Agency (ESA). “Collaborating with ISRO on Future Space Technologies.” ESA official site.
  1. The Hindu. “ISRO 2030: What Lies Ahead?” Analysis of ISRO’s evolving role in global space exploration.

Disclaimer:

Information and data included in the blog are for educational & non-commercial purposes only and have been carefully adapted, excerpted, or edited from reliable and accurate sources. All copyrighted material belongs to respective owners and is provided only for wider dissemination.

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542: UNVEILING ANĀLAKṢHYA: CLOAKING TECHNOLOGY

 

Sputnik News,  a Russian news agency and radio broadcast  service, sought inputs on the Analakshya Project.

 

Article on the subject:-

 

UNVEILING ANĀLAKṢHYA: CLOAKING TECHNOLOGY

 

IIT Kanpur recently unveiled the Anālakṣhya Project, a ground-breaking initiative to advance metamaterial surface cloaking technology. The project, led by IIT Kanpur’s researchers, promises to enhance the strategic capabilities of the Indian defence sector by incorporating advanced technology that can protect vital equipment from detection by radar or other surveillance methods. This innovative project aims to revolutionise defence applications by developing cloaking systems that render objects invisible or significantly reduce their detectability. The Anālakṣhya Project utilises metamaterials—engineered materials with properties not found in naturally occurring substances—to manipulate electromagnetic waves, thus providing new ways to conceal military assets. The Anālakṣhya Project by IIT Kanpur represents a transformative step in India’s defence innovation and positions India at the forefront of next-generation defence systems.

 

Metamaterial Surface Cloaking System (MSCS). The backbone of the Anālakṣhya project is its metamaterials, engineered to manipulate electromagnetic waves, particularly radar signals. A Metamaterial Surface Cloaking System (MSCS) is a technology that uses metamaterials to effectively “cloak” or hide objects by manipulating light or other electromagnetic waves around them. Metamaterials are artificial materials engineered to have properties not found in naturally occurring materials. These properties often include the ability to control the propagation of electromagnetic waves, such as light, in ways that traditional materials cannot. Traditional radars work by emitting radio waves that reflect off objects; however, metamaterials absorb or deflect these waves, significantly reducing the object’s radar cross-section (RCS). This technology is crucial in making fighter jets, naval ships, drones, and military installations undetectable to radar-guided systems, enhancing their survivability in conflict zones.

 

Key features.  The system absorbs radar waves and effectively minimises radar reflections, reducing detection probability. It features adaptive cloaking by dynamically adjusting to different radar frequencies, ensuring comprehensive stealth. Its lightweight and scalable design integrates various platforms, from drones to large platforms (Land, sea and air).

 

Implications for India’s Defence Capabilities. Enhanced Stealth Operations: The Anālakṣhya technology will enhance stealth operations by enabling the covert deployment of high-value military assets. Fighter jets equipped with this system could conduct missions deep into enemy territory without detection, providing a significant tactical edge. Often exposed in open waters, naval ships benefit from reduced detectability, strengthening India’s maritime defence. The ability to operate undetected will give a boost to asymmetric warfare capabilities. It will enhance the missile defence by countering radar-guided threats. The stealth technology would allow surprise manoeuvres, enhancing operational unpredictability, a critical advantage in modern warfare. Fighter aircraft and naval vessels equipped with Anālakṣhya could operate deeper into contested regions without early detection. Integrating Anālakṣhya into multiple platforms will be a force multiplier, allowing fewer assets to achieve a more significant impact. This is particularly beneficial for missions involving long-range reconnaissance, intelligence gathering, and targeted strikes.

 

Anālakṣhya and India’s Defence Standing. Anālakṣhya is a testament to India’s growing emphasis on self-reliance in defence technologies (Atmanirbhar Bharat). India would reduce import dependence by developing Indigenous stealth solutions and strengthening its domestic defence industry. The successful deployment of this technology would open avenues for India to emerge as an exporter of stealth technologies. Countries seeking advanced, cost-effective, radar-evasive solutions may consider India a viable partner. India’s cutting-edge technology development would enhance its geopolitical influence, making it an attractive partner for defence collaborations.

 

Challenges and Future Prospects. Adapting Anālakṣhya to various military platforms, from fighter jets to maritime and land-based platforms, requires overcoming engineering and logistical challenges. Ensuring seamless integration while maintaining operational efficiency will be a crucial focus. Along with stealth technologies, counter-radar detection systems would also evolve. Continuous research and development will be essential to stay ahead of emerging threats. The future of Anālakṣhya lies in its synergy with AI-driven systems, allowing real-time adjustments to stealth parameters based on changing battlefield conditions. This integration will make India’s military platforms more adaptive and autonomous.

 

Conclusion. The Anālakṣhya Project represents a landmark achievement for India, showcasing the country’s capability to develop state-of-the-art defence technologies. By enhancing stealth capabilities and reducing the vulnerability of critical assets, Anālakṣhya fortifies India’s national security and elevates its standing in the global defence arena. As the technology matures, it will serve as a cornerstone for India’s future military strategies, reinforcing its role as a defence innovator and strategic power in the evolving global landscape.

 

Inputs:-

(The views expressed are of the Individual, not IAF or GOI).

    • The Anālakṣhya project, developed by IIT Kanpur, strengthens India’s defence against radar-guided missile threats by employing a Met material Surface Cloaking System (MSCS).
    • This advanced technology uses engineered materials to absorb and deflect radar waves, making military assets such as drones, aircraft, and missiles nearly undetectable.
    • By reducing radar cross-sections, Anālakṣhya enhances stealth capabilities, which is crucial for evading radar-based targeting and improving survivability in hostile environments.
    • This innovation offers India a strategic advantage in modern warfare scenarios involving electronic and radar-guided threats.
    • The deployment of Anālakṣhya will significantly enhance India’s defence capabilities by providing stealth protection for high-value assets like fighter jets, naval ships, and military installations.
    • This cloaking technology will make these assets nearly invisible to enemy radar systems, reducing the effectiveness of radar-guided missiles and improving survivability in conflict zones.
    • In military tactics and operational planning, Anālakṣhya will allow for the covert deployment of assets, surprise manoeuvres, and more resilient defensive postures.
    • It will also support asymmetric warfare by making Indian forces less detectable, thus enhancing strategic deterrence and operational flexibility.​
    • The Anālakṣhya project positions India as a key innovator in the global defence landscape by advancing stealth and radar-evasive technologies.
    • Its deployment signals India’s shift towards next-generation military capabilities, aligning with global leaders in defence innovation like the U.S., China, and Russia.
    • This enhances India’s strategic deterrence, boosts its Indigenous defence manufacturing capacity, and strengthens its standing in defence exports and partnerships.
    • Moreover, Anālakṣhya’s integration with AI and autonomous systems highlights India’s growing role in cutting-edge military research and self-reliance in defence technologies (Atmanirbhar Bharat).

 

Your valuable comments are most welcome.

 

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References and credits

To all the online sites and channels.

References:-

 

  1. IIT Kanpur Official Website. Anālakṣhya Project Announcement. IIT Kanpur Press Release.

 

  1. “IIT Kanpur Develops Metamaterial-Based Cloaking Technology”. The Economic Times.

 

  1. “IIT Kanpur’s Anālakṣhya: The Next Frontier in Defense Cloaking Technology”. India Today.

 

  1. “The Science of Cloaking: How Metamaterials Are Changing the Future of Defense”. Science Daily.

 

  1. “Defense Innovation: Metamaterials and Cloaking”. Ministry of Defense, India.

 

  1. The Future of Metamaterials: Cloaking and Beyond. (2024). IEEE Spectrum.

 

  1. Shalaev, V. M. (2007). Optical Negative Refraction: From Metamaterials to Metadevices. Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics, 9(4), S8.

 

  1. Zhang, S., & Zhang, L. (2014). Metamaterials for Cloaking and Beyond. Springer.

 

  1. Hussein, H. H., & El-Sayed, M. A. (2021). Recent Advances in Metamaterial-Based Cloaking Technology. Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, 35(10), 1251–1272.

 

Disclaimer:

Information and data included in the blog are for educational & non-commercial purposes only and have been carefully adapted, excerpted, or edited from reliable and accurate sources. All copyrighted material belongs to respective owners and is provided only for wider dissemination.